382 Industrial-Organizational Psychology
communication, medicine, administrative systems, and the
like. Work may be redesigned or a job may become obso-
lete because of technological advances. For example, when
the typewriter was introduced in the late 1800s, the occupa-
tion of copyist became obsolete and typist emerged as a new
job (Dipboye et al., 1994). Recently, I-O psychologists
(Howard, 1995) examined the influence of computer tech-
nologies on the functioning of organizations, which in turn
affects the fundamental nature of work.
Craiger (1997) described two paradigm shifts in the his-
tory of computer technology and organizations. The first shift
occurred from the 1950s to the 1980s when computers used
for military purposes were converted to business purposes.
Initially, only the most technically skilled individuals could
use the complex technology; thus, computers were typically
housed in management information systems departments.
After IBM introduced the first stand-alone desktop personal
computer in 1981, computers appeared at a rapid rate and al-
lowed all employees to work directly with the technology;
however, employees still worked in isolation, as the comput-
ers were not connected. The second paradigm shift occurred
in the early 1980s when computer technology was installed
throughout organizations. The ubiquity of computer technol-
ogy inspired organizational leaders to reevaluate their busi-
ness practices and organizational structures (Craiger, 1997).
Then, the local area network (LAN) and client-server net-
works were introduced, allowing workers to share hardware,
software, and information. Organizations adopting this net-
work technology were called open-networked organizations.
The primary work unit was transformed from individuals
and typical department work groups to empowered work
teams (Tapscott & Caston, 1993). The rise of information
technology permitted organizations to (a) “have a high-
performance team structure,” (b) “function as integrated
businesses despite high business unit autonomy,” and (c) “to
reach out and develop new relationships with external orga-
nizations—to become an ‘extended enterprise’” (Tapscott &
Caston, 1993, p. 14).
These changes in organizational functioning affect I-O
psychology research and practice in several ways. Technol-
ogy innovations have grown rapidly in human resources
practices (Downey, 2000). More sophisticated selection tools
have been developed, validated, and implemented (e.g., in-
terview kiosks, computerized adaptive testing). New perfor-
mance criteria and methods for evaluating performance
(computer-aided performance appraisal) will need to be
generated as a result of the open-networked organization
(Craiger, 1997). Computer monitoring of efficiency and
accuracy of employees (e.g., keyboard operators) and
surveillance technologies are currently in use (Dipboye et al.,
1994). Computer-based training (CBT), Web training, and
multimedia instructional formats have become a standard in
college education and several organizations. Implications of
technology on the design of jobs and teams will need investi-
gation. With these technological advances, training for learn-
ing and adapting to changes in technology will become
essential (Cascio, 1995).
Changes in technology also impact the research and statis-
tical methods I-O psychologists use. Sophisticated statistical
methodologies blossomed with the availability of computers
and software in the 1980s and 1990s. SIOP past president
(1995–1996) Michael A. Campion noted, “The advent of
computers is certainly partially responsible for the advanced
statistics we use” (Michael A. Campion, personal communi-
cation, September 22, 2000). Examples include item re-
sponse theory, structural equation modeling, meta-analysis,
event history analysis, and other methods for the study of
change (Katzell & Austin, 1992). In addition, the Internet has
changed communication patterns and research methods by
making correspondence and information accessible. Most re-
cently, SIOP leaders recognized the importance of technol-
ogy for the discipline by devoting a portion of SIOP’s 2001
annual conference to technological issues for the first time
(SIOP Executive Committee Meeting Minutes, September,
24, 2000).Psychological ForcesPsychological forces are developments in thought, theories,
research, and practice in psychology generally. I-O psychol-
ogy can trace its roots to the inception of psychology as a
discipline at the end of the nineteenth century, the period de-
scribed as the flowering of science (Roback, 1952). The intel-
lectual zeitgeist consisted of positivism, materialism, and
empiricism; consequently, scientists became interested in em-
pirically investigating the mind and behavior. In his Germany
laboratory, Wilhelm Wundt used the experimental method to
control observations for studying objectively mind and be-
havior in order to separate psychology from philosophy as a
scientific discipline (Hergenhahn, 1997).
During this time, functionalism, which is based on
Darwinism and individual differences, was formulated. This
school of thought emphasized the importance of adaptations,
functions, and fitness as keys to survival (Angell, 1907). Psy-
chologists became interested in how and why the mind adapts
the individual to its environment. Functionalism served as the
foundation for the mental-testing movement that took place
at the turn of the twentieth century and the birth of a second