The Hybrid Years 421Literary Developments
More literature specific to school psychology was produced
in this period than in all the previous periods combined. In
addition to the Thayer Conference proceedings, a special
issue of the Journal of Consulting Psychology(Symonds,
1942) focused on practice in the schools. The primary events,
however, were the founding of the Journal of School Psy-
chologyin 1963 and Psychology in the Schoolsin 1964.
School psychology finally had a literature of its own. The
Division of School Psychology had a newsletter, as did
the state associations, but their content and circulation were
much narrower than these journals provided. Several books
about school psychology were published in the 1960s. Many
of these were philosophical in nature, describing the authors’
viewpoints on the appropriate roles and functions of school
psychologists and their training needs. The literature re-
flected the growing interest in the field, the need for texts in
emerging training programs, and a continuing effort to clarify
the field’s identity (Fagan, 1986).
Training Developments
Although there were only a few programs at the beginning of
this period, at least 18 (including 5 doctoral programs) were
identified by the time of the Thayer Conference, and about
100 programs specifically on school psychology existed by
- However, APA accreditation of school psychology pro-
grams was not accomplished until 1971. Thus, during this
period, programs were developed in the absence of official
APA curriculum standards, although some programs used the
guidelines being developed by Division 16 in its effort
to achieve accreditation. Programs were more often devel-
oped to comply with the requirements for certification and
licensure put forth by state-level education and psychology
boards. By the end of this period, school psychology pro-
grams were widespread in the more populous states, espe-
cially east of the Mississippi River, and approximately 3,000
students were in training. Locally developed and uncoordi-
nated efforts provided internships for trainees in most states,
although a few, like Ohio, developed a statewide system of
paid internships by the mid-1960s.
Credentialing Developments
As demand for practitioners grew, the need to regulate their
services and preparation increased. State education agency
credentialing of school psychological examiners and school
psychologists grew quickly. Following the examples of New
York and Pennsylvania, other states began credentialing
school psychologists so that by the mid-1940s, 13 states had
done so. That number increased to 23 states by 1960, and per-
haps 40 by the end of the period. Few of these states followed
the two levels of training, titles, and practice recommended
by Division 16, choosing instead to require training below
the doctoral degree, sometimes to include a bachelor’s degree
with additional graduate work or a master’s degree with spe-
cific training, and in some instances requiring a teaching
credential and/or experience. By the end of the period, how-
ever, the master’s degree with training in school psychology
was typical of credentialing requirements from state educa-
tion agencies, and few states were requiring prior training as
a teacher.
Credentialing for nonschool practice (e.g., community
clinics, independent private practice) followed closely upon
the success of the state education agencies. The first psychol-
ogy credentialing by a state board of examiners in psychol-
ogy (SBEP) occurred in 1945 in Connecticut. By 1960, 15
states achieved this, and 40 states had done so by 1969.
These laws tended to follow closely the APA’s expectations
for the doctoral degree, with some states allowing the title
“psychologist” at the master’s level. Most states employed
the term “psychological examiner” or “associate” for non-
doctoral persons and restricted their practice or placed their
work under doctoral supervision. The differing requirements
of the SDE and SBEP restricted or barred the practice of
most school-based school psychologists in nonschool set-
tings. This set the stage for numerous state-level conflicts in
the future.Practice CharacteristicsSchool psychology practice remained similar to the previous
period, although its roles and functions in the area of thera-
peutic interventions and consultation expanded somewhat.
Whereas World War I had launched the contributions of psy-
chological testing, World War II launched the contributions
of psychotherapy to war veterans and indirectly to school
psychological practice. The period 1940–1970 brought to the
fore the theories of Carl Rogers, Fritz Perls, Albert Ellis,
and others in addition to the dynamic Freudian therapies.
In addition, Skinnerian theory was advancing the position of
behavioral psychology and its applications in behavior
modification. The growth of therapeutic psychology was also
heightened by the Community Mental Health Centers Act
of 1963, which encouraged widespread development of
community-based clinics for therapy in addition to psycho-
logical assessment.