424 School Psychology
IOC has been an effective vehicle for several collaborative
efforts between these organizations.
Although NASP was a dominant force in many areas and
held a commanding membership representation of school
psychologists (perhaps 70%), the Division of School Psy-
chology continued to be an important representative of school
psychology to the broader arena of American psychology
within the APA. In addition, the division was the dominant
force in doctoral-level program accreditation and advocacy
efforts exclusively on behalf of doctoral school psychology.
By the 1990s, the NASP and APA Division 16 had achieved a
more comfortable relationship, despite their major policy
differences (Fagan, Gorin, & Tharinger, 2000).
With the assistance of NASP, state associations for school
psychologists thrived. While there were just 17 associations
at the end of the Hybrid Years, there were at least 50 by the
late 1990s, almost all of which had formally affiliated with
NASP. In almost every state, two systems of organizational
representation now existed via the state psychological associ-
ation and the state school psychological association. In a
few states, the school psychology affiliate was a part of the
state psychological association. In most states, however, they
were entirely separate and often in bitter competition over
practice privileges and credentialing. Every state’s psycho-
logical association was affiliated with the APA. The network
of NASP state affiliates allowed the NASP a ready avenue
for promoting its positions, products, and advocacy efforts
throughout the country. The Division of School Psychology
had little or no effectiveness in doing this because state
psychological associations did not affiliate directly with
APA divisions, and in most states few school psychologists
belonged to the state psychological association. The differ-
ences in the effectiveness of such networks for the NASP
and the division were observable in the aftermath of their
jointly sponsored futures conferences in 1980 and 1981 (see
Brown, Cardon, Coulter, & Meyers, 1982; Ysseldyke &
Weinberg, 1981).
Organizational developments outside the United States
were also occurring. Originating in the early 1970s, the inter-
national school psychology movement led to the establish-
ment of the International School Psychology Association in
- Relatedly, the Canadian Association of School Psy-
chology (CASP) was founded in 1985. Both groups conduct
annual meetings and have affiliate organizations (see Fagan &
Wise, 2000, chapters 9 and 10).
Literary Development
Literary development followed quickly upon the expansion
of the 1960s. The NASP founded its School Psychology
Digest(now the School Psychology Review) in 1972 as a
member subscription journal, and it has one of the largest cir-
culations of all psychology journals. The Division of School
Psychology-APA founded Professional School Psychology
(nowSchool Psychology Quarterly) in 1986. The division’s
journal was an indirect outgrowth of its monograph series in
the 1970s. Both groups improved the content and size of their
newsletters and provided other products in print and nonprint
media. The NASP developed an array of products specifically
for school psychology training programs and practitioners,
and the APA conducted a broad expansion of its publications.
Both groups published codes of ethics, standards, and refer-
ence materials (e.g., membership, training, and credentialing
directories). Division 16 produced several “Conversation
Series” interviews on videotape that were used in training
programs in the 1990s. Also of interest to literary expansion
in the United States was the founding of School Psychology
Internationalin 1979 and the Canadian Journal of School
Psychologyin 1985.
Numerous books on school psychology and related
topics were published, including those that were revised peri-
odically, for example, Best Practices in School Psychology
(Thomas & Grimes, 1995) and The Handbook of School
Psychology(Reynolds & Gutkin, 1999). In contrast to earlier
periods, there were a considerable number of books on con-
sultation, intervention, and service delivery alternatives.
Communication among school psychologists was spurred
as well by the widespread use of computers with Internet and
electronic mail capacity. Organizations, journals, school sys-
tems, university programs, and many school psychologists
disseminated information via Web sites and listservs.
National efforts were reflected at the state association level
as well. The state school psychology associations produced a
mass of literature and products of their own, including widely
disseminated newsletters. Whereas school psychologists dur-
ing the Hybrid Years had suffered a dearth of communication,
the Thoroughbred Years approached communication over-
load, especially in print and Internet communication. In addi-
tion, practitioners with subspecialty interests often garnered
information beyond the core school psychology sources. It
was indeed the “information age” for all of psychology.Training DevelopmentTraining programs expanded rapidly in the 1970s, and for the
remainder of the period between 200 and 230 institutions
were offering programs at the master’s, specialists, and doc-
toral levels. Program standards were proffered by the NASP
that were in contrast to those of the APA. Both organizations
offered procedures for program approval and accreditation.