Negro resistance to slavery and the Atlantic
slave trade from Africa to Black America105the progress of the expedition. According to Batteil, the youngest and finest-
looking prisoners were made to go through the ordeal of being used as targets.
The object of these invasions, whether or not they brought to a close
an earlier phase of migration, was to conquer and destroy the coastal kingdoms
which owed allegiance to the Europeans.
When the Dutch took possession of Luanda in August 1641, they became
the allies of the Jaga, who cleverly exploited the conflict within the European
camp between the Portuguese and the pirates.
Four lines of research are therefore strongly advocated: (a) the Jaga
problem ('an African reaction to the slave trade'); (b) internal migrations—
origins and movements—causes. Some migrations had their origins in the
Sudanese—Moslem conflicts of the ninth and tenth centuries ; (c) related inva-
sions—Mane, Sumba, Imbangala; and (d) recording oral traditions and com-
paring them with any written sources.
A final comment: the Jaga problem is connected with that of the Angolese
of Sao Tomé, who apparently had the same origin, and also that of the kilombos
of colonial Brazil.^9 The study of the Jaga kilombo, as described by Cavazzi,
with its seven sections carefully oriented and with several Nganga to run it,
helps us to understand the structure of its Brazilian counterpart, whichh as
similar features.
Sugar industry and slave uprisings in the African archipelagosAfter Cape Verde and Bijagos, the Portuguese tried to occupy Sao Tomé c.
1470-86. The island of Fernando Po, the largest, which was already inhabited
at that time by Bubis Negroes, triumphantly resisted the Portuguese invaders.
'Formosa' remained theoretically under Portuguese sovereignty right until
1777, which, as the population of Sao Tomé increased, enabled the colonists
to draw on fresh supplies of slaves. Under a treaty between Spain and Portugal
ratified on 11 March 1778, Spain was granted rights over Fernando Po and
Ano-Bom and entitled to engage freely in the slave trade along the African
coast from Cape Formoso at the mouth of the Niger as far as Cape Lopo
Gonçalves, south of the Gabon estuary, in exchange for Catarina Island and
the Sacramento colony in South America, which came under Portuguese rule.
It was not until 1858, however, that Spanish sovereignty was established firmly
by an expedition led by Commander Carlos Chacon.
Through the development of the sugar industry in Sao Tomé in the
sixteenth century, at the instigation of the Jewish element in the population,
the island had a considerable export trade with ramifications in the Mediter-
ranean and Europe. As early as 1574, there were sixty engenhos producing
over 150,000 arrobas of sugar. During the years 1575-80, the production had
increased to 200,000 arrobas. By the end of the century it had reached 300,000