Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology

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products are eliminated fairly quickly and do not accu-
mulate to toxic levels. If homeostasis is not maintained, the
body will experience disease and, eventually, death.

Summary Outline

INTRODUCTION

1. The four basic reference systems of body organization
   are directions, planes, cavities, and structural units.

TERMS OF DIRECTION

1. Superior means uppermost or above; inferior

means lowermost or below.^

2. Anterior means toward the front; ventral is synony-
   mous with anterior. Posterior means toward- the

back; dorsal is synonymous with posterior.^

3.^ Cephalad or cranial means toward^ the head.^
4. Medial means nearest the midline; lateral means

toward the side.^

5. Proximal means near the point of attachment; distal
   means away from the point of attachment.

PLANES

1. A midsagittal or median plane vertically divides the
   body into equal halves. A sagittal plane is parallel to a

median or midsagittal plane.^

2. A horizontal or transverse plane divides the body

into superior and inferior portions.^

3. A frontal or coronal plane divides the anterior or
   ventral and the posterior or dorsal portions of the
   body at right angles to the sagittal planes.

CAVITIES

1. The body has two major cavities: the dorsal cavity

and the ventral cavity.^

2. The dorsal cavity is subdivided into the cranial
   cavity,- which contains the brain, and the spinal

cavity,- which contains the spinal cord.^

3. The ventral cavity is divided into two lesser cavities-.
   The first is the thoracic cavity, which contains the
   heart in the pericardial cavity and the two lungs each in

a pleural cavity. The second is the abdominopelvic-^
cavity, which contains many of the digestive organs
and some urinary and reproductive organs.

Chapter 1

4.^ The term parietal^ refers to the walls of a cavity.^
5. The term visceral refers to the covering of an organ.

STRUCTURAL UNITS

1.^ The cell is the basic unit of the body’s organization.^
2. Different types of cells make up the four tissues
of the body: epithelial, connective, muscle, and
nervous.^
3. Organs are composed of cells integrated into tissues
serving a common function.^
4. A system is a group of organs that perform a
common function.^
5. The integumentary system includes skin, hair, nails,
and sweat and sebaceous glands. It protects, insu-
lates, and regulates water and temperature.^
6. The skeletal system includes bones and cartilage. It
allows movement, makes blood cells, stores fat,
protects,- and supports.^
7. The muscular system is made of skeletal, smooth,
and cardiac muscles. It causes movement.^
8. The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord,
and cranial and spinal nerves. It is the controlling,
regulatory, and correlating system of the body.^
9. The endocrine system consists of the endocrine glands
and their hormones. It regulates chemical aspects of
the body in conjunction with the nervous system.
10. The cardiovascular, or blood circulatory, system
consists of the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. It
distributes blood, carrying oxygen, nutrients, and
wastes to and from body cells.^
11. The lymphatic, or immune, system is made up of the
lymph nodes, lymph vessels, the thymus gland, and
the spleen. It drains tissues of excess fluids,
transports fats, and develops immunities.^
12. The respiratory system includes the nose,
pharynx,- larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. It
brings oxygen to and eliminates carbon dioxide
from the blood.^
13. The digestive system is composed of the organs of
the alimentary tract from the lips to the anus and its
associated glands. It converts food into simpler
substances that can be absorbed along with other
nutrients by the body’s cells.^
14. The urinary system includes the kidneys, ureters,
bladder, and urethra. It functions in the chemical
regulation of the blood.