12 Handbook of herbs and spices
powder is rich in mycotoxins, contaminated with AFB 1 (Patel et al., 1996; Martins et
al., 2001), OTA, ZEN, FUM, and trichothecenes (Patel et al., 1996).
Ginger was contaminated with AFs (Patel et al., 1996; Wood, 1989), OTA (Patel
et al., 1996; Thirumala-Devi et al., 2001) and mycophenolic acid (Overy and Frisvad,
2005). Mycophenolic acid produced by Penicillium brevicompactum may cause
secondary mycotoxicosis by affecting the immune system of humans, thus making
them more susceptible to bacterial infections and foodborne diseases (Overy and
Frisvad, 2005).
Mustard is a susceptible substrate for aflatoxin contamination (Sahay and Prasad,
1990; Bilgrami et al., 1991). Bilgrami et al., (1991) found mustard seeds of pre-
harvested crops to be contaminated with various levels of aflatoxin. Delayed planting
resulted in a high incidence of aflatoxin. The amount of aflatoxin detected in the
samples of the third planting date was 272 and 279 mg/kg during the first and second
years respectively. These values were significantly higher than the amounts detected
in the samples of the first (106; 35 mg/kg) and second (110; 56 mg/kg) planting dates
of the respective years. Differences between the two varieties with respect to aflatoxin
contamination can be attributed to the variation in their maturity period as well as
their ability to resist aflatoxin elaboration. However, aflatoxins were not detected in
mustard (0/3 samples) (Taguchi et al., 1995).
Nutmeg and saffron were also found contaminated with AFs (Beljaars et al., 1975;
Martins et al., 2001). High levels of OTA (110 mg/kg) were detected in turmeric,
which is one of the most widely used spices in Indian cooking (Thirumala-Devi et
al., 2001) Elshafie et al., (2002) screened fifteen samples of spices (ginger, cumin,
cinnamon, clove, black pepper, cardamom and coriander) that were heavily contaminated
by A. flavus, for the presence of aflatoxins using HPLC. No aflatoxins were detected
on the samples.
Abou-Arab et al., (1999) collected medicinal plant samples such as peppermint,
chamomile, anise, caraway and tilio, randomly from the Egyptian market and analysed
for aflatoxins. A. flavus was predominant in most samples with the highest level in
peppermint. Aflatoxin contamination was not detected in any of the samples. In
another study it was found that spices such as coriander, cardamon, pippali, and
emblic are contaminated with aflatoxin B 1 at levels above the tolerance level set by
the World Health Organization (Roy and Chourasia, 1990).
Herbs and medicinal plants commonly used in Egyptian foods were collected
from Egypt and analysed in the USA by reversed phase liquid chromatography with
UV detection. Aflatoxin B 1 was found in Karkadia (24 mg/kg), Halfa bar (camel’s
hay) (64 mg/kg), rawind (48 mg/kg), khashab keena (cinchona bark) (49 mg/kg), misht
ballot (26 mg/kg), kesher romman (pomegranate peel) (105 mg/kg), somowa (cleme)
(26 mg/kg) and salamakka (senna pods) (48 mg/kg) (Selim et al., 1996).
The results of a survey by Majerus et al., (1985) on 185 spices yielded aflatoxins
in 16 cases less than 5 mg/kg (eight nutmeg, one coriander and seven chilies/cayenne)
and in eight cases more than 5 mg/kg (three nutmeg: 5.4–7.7 mg/kg; one coriander:
5.2 mg/kg; four chilies: 8.4–24 mg/kg). Ochratoxin A and sterigmatocystin could not
be detected. However Reddy et al., (2001) have detected aflatoxin above 30 mg/kg in
chili powder and at the same time ochratoxin A above 30 mg/kg.