Chapter 2, page 33
Figure 2.3 This figure shows the chunked contents of Tamra’s working memory at two points in
time, as indicated in the text.
First, Tamra reads the word lobster, first encoding LOB, then working out the rest of the word.
LOB S T E R S lobsters
Second, Tamra keeps lobsters in working memory as she reads the word taste, letter by letter.
lobsters T A S T E taste
Third, Tamra keeps lobsters taste in memory as she works out the word food.
lobsters taste F O O D Food
Fourth, As Tamra reads the word with, there is no space for any information beyond the W-I-T-
H spelling, so the concept lobsters drops out of working memory.
taste food W I T H with
lobsters
Most information processing theorists emphasize the role of extensive practice in gaining
automaticity (K. A. Ericsson, Krampe, & Clemens, 1993). For instance, students who gain proficiency in
reading have spent a substantial amount of time reading, thereby enhancing their skill at decoding words
as well as their skill at interpreting sentences. Little by little, with increased practice, these reading skills
become more and more automatic (Archer, Gleason, & Vachon, 2003). The challenge to teachers, in light
of this knowledge, is how to help students engage in lots of practice so that skills become automatic, but to
make this practice both interesting and engaging. We revisit this topic in Chapter 12 (Creating Motivating
Instruction). In addition, when encouraging students to practice their skills, teachers also must ensure that
students’ practice is thoughtful and purposeful in order for it to be effective. Five hours of half-hearted,
mindless practice on math problems may have much less value than two hours of thoughtful practice using
effective learning strategies. We will revisit this topic in Chapter 7 (Complex Cognitive Strategies and
Self-Regulated Learning).
As we have seen in this section, there are two central ways to increase the amount of information
that can be placed in working memory at the same time: chunking information and making processes
automatic. We will encounter a number of the instructional methods in later chapters that will help
students chunk more effectively and make processes automatic.