portunity to control their exploration of the comput-
er and software. Early use should be limited in
duration, and frustration should be avoided. Chil-
dren at this stage enjoy interacting with active links
and areas on the screen, discovering the effects of
clicking different choices. Some research indicates
that this kind of computer use gives children an in-
creased sense of their impact on their environment,
which leads to a greater sense of self-efficacy.
Children ages five to about seven are ready to
begin using computers for more directed purposes,
which may include communication, information
gathering, and skills development. Appropriate soft-
ware selection is important and children should have
several to choose from. It is a good idea for children
at this age to have some control over how they use the
computer including some choice about software. An-
other appropriate use for children in this age range
is for cooperative activities. Working with others on
computers can reinforce language skills and help
build cooperative work skills.
At ages seven and beyond, children are ready to
continue using computers for a variety of purposes.
In addition to skills development, children may use
computers to create presentations that exercise or
demonstrate their mastery of concepts or processes.
As use of the computer as a communications tool ex-
pands, the computer can become increasingly impor-
tant as a tool that the child can use to accomplish
other tasks. Such use should expand as appropriate
for the child. At these ages, however, some children
begin to spend too much time using computers and
other technologies, especially video games.
Conclusion
Children can use computers in effective and posi-
tive ways. Positive uses of computers by children are
developmentally appropriate and can reinforce the
attainment of desirable skills and traits such as math
mastery, verbal language use, and cooperation skills.
Computers, however, can also be used in ways that
may be harmful to the child. Possible harmful effects
from computers, such as repetitive motion injuries
and eyestrain, most often stem from overuse of com-
puters and use of computers that are positioned inap-
propriately for children. If children are to use
computers, they should be taught to limit their com-
puter use to reasonable lengths of time. They should
be supervised appropriately while using computers in
ways that might expose them to inappropriate mate-
rial or practices.
See also: COMPUTER LITERACY; INTERNET
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Brian Newberry
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
THINKING
Concrete operational thinking is the third stage in
French psychologist Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development. Children typically reach this stage,
which is characterized by logical reasoning about real
situations without being influenced by changes in ap-
pearances, at the age of seven or eight. Whereas
three-year-olds believe a ball of dough becomes larg-
er if it is flattened, eight-year-olds understand that
flattening the ball does not change the total amount
of dough. Older children generally are able to under-
stand three concepts that help them to realize that the
amount of dough is unchanged. First, an item’s ap-
pearance can change without changing its identity;
the total amount of the dough does not change when
it changes shape. Second, the effects of actions can be
reversed; flattened dough can be rolled again. Third,
a change in one dimension can be compensated for
by an opposite change in another dimension; flat-
tened dough covers a wider area but is also thinner
than rolled dough.See also: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT; PIAGET, JEANBibliography
Furth, Hans. Piaget for Teachers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall, 1970.
Piaget, Jean, and Bärbel Inhelder. The Psychology of the Child. New
York: Basic Books, 1969.
Karen E. Singer-FreemanCONCRETE OPERATIONAL THINKING 97