Child Development

CONDUCT DISORDER

Conduct disorder is a pattern of behavior in which in-
dividuals consistently disregard and violate the rights
of others. The specific types of behaviors are varied
and can include physical violence, repeated lying,
damaging property, and stealing. Conduct disorder
is believed to have roots in family interaction early in
development, although its full expression may not
occur until adolescence. For example, many studies
show that family members train each other to engage
in conflictive and coercive behavior that may lead to
later conduct problems. This can be seen especially
among siblings, as they can observe each other inter-
acting with their parents and ‘‘practice’’ aggressive
and bullying behavior with each other. During adoles-
cence, however, individuals with conduct problems
may form social networks with others, both friends
and siblings, who are also trained in coercive behav-
ior, and thus reinforce and encourage each other’s
antisocial tendencies.

See also: FRIENDSHIP; JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

Bibliography
Dishion, Thomas J., K. M. Spracklen, D. W. Andrews, and G. R.
Patterson. ‘‘Deviancy Training in Male Adolescent Friend-
ships.’’ Behavior Therapy 27 (1996):373–390.
Patterson, G., Thomas J. Dishion, and L. Bank. ‘‘Family Interac-
tion: A Process Model of Deviancy Training.’’ Aggressive Be-
havior 10 (1984):253–267.
Rowe, D.C., and B. Gulley. ‘‘Sibling Effects on Substance Abuse and
Delinquency.’’ Criminology 30 (1992):217–233.
Slomkowski, Cheryl, Richard Rende, Katherine Conger, R. Si-
mons, and Rand Conger. ‘‘Sisters, Brothers, and Delinquen-
cy: Evaluating Social Influence During Early and Middle
Adolescence.’’ Child Development 72 (2001):271–283.
Cheryl Slomkowski
Richard Rende

CONFORMITY

Conformity is a change in beliefs or behaviors when
youth yield to real or imagined social pressure. Con-
formity is affected by developmental level, situations,
and persons involved. Young children tend to con-
form to their parents’ rules and expectations. As chil-
dren become older, they become more autonomous
from their parents, and also become more peer-
oriented. Conformance to parents in neutral or pro-
social situations (i.e., helping, volunteering) de-
creases gradually as a child ages. However, peer con-
formity, especially to antisocial behaviors (i.e., alcohol
use, criminal acts) increases with age. Youth may en-
gage in misconduct to avoid rejection, to stay in peers’
good graces, or to gain approval. Children from fami-
lies that are permissive and neglectful are likely to be

more susceptible to peer influence and may join

gangs to feel a sense of belonging. During middle and

late adolescence, youth strike a balance between con-

formity to parents, peers, and their own individual

identity.

See also: FRIENDSHIP

Bibliography

Berndt, Thomas J. ‘‘Developmental Changes in Conformity to

Peers and Parents.’’ Developmental Psychology 15 (1979):608–

616.

Fulingi, Andrew J., and Jacquelynne S. Eccles. ‘‘Perceived Parent-

Child Relationships and Early Adolescents’ Orientation To-

wards Peers.’’ Developmental Psychology 29 (1993):622–632.

Rhonda Cherie Boyd

CONGENITAL DEFORMITIES

Congenital deformities include a broad range of

physical abnormalities existing from birth, although

some, such as scoliosis, may not manifest until later

in life. The most common are craniofacial deformi-

ties, such as cleft lip or palate, and skeletal defor-

mities, such as clubfoot or spina bifida. Certain chro-

mosomal disorders such as Fragile X syndrome and

Down syndrome also have associated physical abnor-

malities, as have substance-induced problems such as

fetal alcohol syndrome. The impacts of congenital de-

formities can be primary, such as delays in the devel-

opment of motor and language skills, or secondary,

such as social ostracism and low self-esteem. Surgical

procedures may help with many of the physical ab-

normalities, although these can involve multiple sur-

geries and may cause more stress for the child and

family members. Congenital abnormalities are best

thought of as chronic illnesses; multidisciplinary, as

well as psychosocial, interventions at the individual,

family, and community levels are usually recom-

mended.

See also: DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES

Bibliography

Brewer, E. J., M. McPherson, P. R. Magrab, and V. L. Hutchins.

‘‘Family-Centered, Community-Based Coordinated Care for

Children with Special Health Care Needs.’’ Pediatrics 83

(1989):1055–1060.

Smith, D. W. Smith’s Recognizable Patterns of Human Malformation,

4th edition, edited by K. L. Jones. Philadelphia: Saunders,

1988.

William E. Sobesky

CONSERVATION

Conservation refers to an understanding that a quan-

tity (i.e., liquid, number, mass) remains constant de-

98 CONDUCT DISORDER