tentially volatile—for instance, when a young person’s
desire to stay out late with his friends conflicts with
the parents’ needs to make sure their child is safe and
home at a reasonable hour.
Although adolescents’ conflicts over family issues
can have an emotional impact, emotional extremes
more often center on interactions with peers, particu-
larly romantic partners. These extreme feelings are
tied to the adolescent’s self-perceptions, sometimes
producing feelings of worthlessness and sometimes
eliciting strong joy and desire. Depending on the
unique characteristics of the young person, the avail-
ability of parental support, and the amount and kind
of stress in an adolescent’s life, some teens are able to
surmount difficult emotional situations, whereas oth-
ers may despair.
Emotion and Autonomy/Identify Formation
During this transition period, adolescents con-
front the challenge of developing autonomy—the ca-
pacity to think, feel, and act on their own. The quest
for autonomy not only involves separation from par-
ents and the development of self-reliance but also
raises issues related to emotionality. One aspect of au-
tonomy involves the need for the adolescent to realize
that her emotions are independent from those of her
parents, a process referred to as ‘‘emotional autono-
my.’’ During this period, adolescents may feel pulled
between the need for close emotional ties with their
parents and the need to develop their own emotional
responses. For parents, the difficulty arises as to how
to encourage emotional autonomy and independence
while avoiding tension and conflict. If parents and
teens can compromise and adapt during this period
of change, it can be a positive time of exploration for
both.
Anxiety and Depression
When emotional development becomes distort-
ed, outcomes for children and teens can be put at risk.
If not effectively dealt with, unresolved issues of emo-
tional development can lead to more serious emo-
tional disorders. At least one in five children and
adolescents displays symptoms of emotional disor-
ders, with anxiety and depression as the most com-
mon types.
Anxiety disorders include, among others, panic
disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and phobias
(excessive fears). Although most children encounter
feelings of anxiety or fear, these usually do not be-
come debilitating. Anxiety disorders generally have
an onset early in childhood and persist into adult-
hood. Additionally, anxiety disorders may become
exacerbated over time and sometimes lead to other
disorders, such as depression.
Depression is generally characterized by hope-
lessness, low self-esteem, and sadness, and not only
affects children’s emotionality but also their physical
well-being. Beginning in the 1970s, the age of onset
of depression started decreasing, and by the early
twenty-first century, depression commonly begins
during adolescence. Estimates of clinical depression
range from 4 percent to 12 percent of adolescents,
with older adolescents having higher rates. Before
puberty, rates of depression are low and occur equally
in boys and girls. After puberty, girls report increased
depression, with rates about twice those of boys.
Evidence is growing that problems with hormon-
al activity in the brain and nervous system often result
in depression. The onset of puberty and associated
hormonal changes may influence adolescents’ emo-
tional states. Also, some teens seem more prone to de-
pression because they have cognitive styles in which
they define their circumstances in terms of hopeless-
ness and self-blame.Summary
Beginning in infancy and spanning the course of
childhood and adolescence, emotionality represents
a critical aspect of development. Although the precise
factors that affect emotional development vary from
individual to individual, emotions influence how chil-
dren relate to others, how they feel about themselves,
and the direction in which development proceeds.
The study of emotional development in children and
adolescents is incomplete, however. Researchers are
only beginning to better understand the interplay be-
tween children’s life experiences and the complex de-
velopmental and emotional tasks they face.See also: MILESTONES OF DEVELOPMENT; STAGES OF
DEVELOPMENTBibliography
Bloom, Lois, and J. Capatides. ‘‘Expression of Affect and the Emer-
gence of Language.’’ Child Development 58 (1987):1513–1522.
Campos, Joseph J., B. I. Bertenthal, and R. Kermoian. ‘‘Early Ex-
perience and Emotional Development: The Emergence of
Wariness of Heights.’’ Psychological Science 3 (1992):61–64.
Greene, Bob. Good Morning, Merry Sunshine. New York: Penguin,
1985.
Greenspan, Stanley I., and N. T. Greenspan. First Feelings: Mile-
stones in the Emotional Development of Your Baby and Child. New
York: Viking Penguin, 1985.
Harter, Susan, and B. J. Buddin. ‘‘Children’s Understanding of the
Simultaneity of Two Emotions: A Five-Stage Developmental
Acquisition Sequence.’’ Developmental Psychology 23
(1987):388–399.
Hoffman, Martin L. ‘‘Empathy, Its Development and Prosocial Im-
plications.’’ In C. B. Keasey ed., Nebraska Symposium on Motiva-
tion, Vol. 25. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1978.
Lewis, Michael. ‘‘Self-Conscious Emotions: Embarrassment, Pride,
Shame, and Guilt.’’ In Michael Lewis and J. M. Haviland eds.,
Handbook of Emotions. New York: Guilford Press, 1993.136 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT