Child Development

fact that many of his ideas have been difficult to test
empirically, Erikson has influenced developmental-
ists in several areas, particularly those interested in
adolescent development.

See also: SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT; THEORIES OF
DEVELOPMENT

Bibliography

Publications by Erikson
Childhood and Society. New York: Norton, 1950.
Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton, 1968.

Matthew J. Hertenstein

ETHICAL GUIDELINES FOR

RESEARCH

Both the American Psychological Association and the
Society for Research in Child Development have out-
lined standards for performing ethical research with
children. The most important principle for both or-
ganizations is that children must be protected from
harm during research investigations. Researchers
must use the least stressful procedures possible; mini-
mize deception about the goals of the research; en-
sure that potential stress is outweighed by the
benefits, such as financial compensation or treat-
ment; and correct unforeseen negative consequences
of the research. The child’s participation must be
based on informed and voluntary consent. Parents or
legal guardians must be informed of all aspects of the
research that could affect their willingness to let their
child participate, including study procedures, risks
and benefits, protection of the child’s privacy, and the
child’s freedom to discontinue participation. They
must be allowed to ask questions and to make a volun-
tary decision about their child’s participation. Chil-
dren also should be informed about the study, in age-
appropriate language, and given the chance to agree
or disagree to participate. Researchers should share
findings responsibly with parents and the scientific
community in a way that protects participants’ identi-
ties and minimizes misinterpretation.

See also: METHODS OF STUDYING CHILDREN

Bibliography
American Psychological Association. ‘‘Ethical Principles of Psychol-
ogists and Code of Conduct.’’ American Psychologist 47
(1992):1597–1611.
Society for Research in Child Development. Ethical Standards for
Research with Children. Chicago: SRCD, 1990.
Debora Bell-Dolan

EXERCISE

From the time of such theorists as French philoso-

pher and writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778),

it has been believed that the child’s health plays an

important role in development. Some theorists have

recognized the importance of regular physical activity

in promoting healthy children. It was not until the

twentieth century, however, that researchers began

examining the importance of regular exercise in the

development of children.

Exercise and Fitness

Children seem to have an endless supply of ener-

gy. They are often highly active and are almost con-

stantly playing. Play is any spontaneous activity used

for the child’s amusement. Exercise is more planned

and structured. The allure of amusement for children

can be a motivating tool to direct children’s activities

for the purpose of exercise.

Exercise is used for the development of fitness,

which comes in two primary forms, motor fitness and

physical fitness. Motor fitness includes balance, coor-

dination, motion, and speed and is developed in the

first few years of a child’s life through play exercises.

Physical fitness includes aerobic fitness, muscular

strength and endurance, flexibility, and body compo-

sition. Physical fitness can be addressed in children as

young as five years of age and continues to affect

health through adulthood.

Aerobic fitness involves the efficiency of the heart

and lungs. An exercise program that consists of con-

tinuous activity for twenty to thirty minutes four to six

times a week produces an improvement in aerobic fit-

ness. Any improvement in aerobic fitness leads to a

decreased risk of cardiovascular disease and a mea-

surable decrease in stress. Children with high levels

of aerobic fitness grow up to be healthier adults.

Muscle strength and endurance measure how

strong muscles are and how long they are able to do

work. Children improve muscle strength and endur-

ance when they exercise. A typical program would

have various exercises for each area of the body. Each

exercise is usually repeated eight to ten times. The

benefits of increased strength and endurance include

more efficient muscles and a decreased risk of inju-

ries. By strengthening muscles around joints, joints

become stronger, thus avoiding many hyperflexibility

injuries.

Flexibility is the range of motion in joints. The

range of motion a joint has is determined by the tight-

ness of muscles and other connective tissue surround-

ing a joint. Joints can have too much range of motion

(known as hyperflexibility), or they can have a limited

EXERCISE 141