child’s life. Fathers in positive marriages are more
likely to have secure infants, positive attitudes toward
their children and their role as a parent, and low le-
vels of parenting stress. The father’s relationship with
other family members, friends, his partner’s family,
and with members of his own family of origin are also
important. In one study, men who received more
emotional support from their work and family rela-
tions had more secure infants.
A father’s economic status clearly affects his abili-
ty to provide adequate child support and may ulti-
mately affect his relationship with both his partner
and child. More-educated fathers play with and teach
their children more than do less-educated fathers,
and fathers’ academic achievement is associated with
the amount of time spent as primary caregivers. A fa-
ther’s job loss is associated with negative outcomes for
the child, and fathers in poor and welfare families,
particularly those facing chronic poverty, are less in-
volved in their adolescent children’s lives.
Little is known, however, about how child charac-
teristics affect a father’s reactions to his child and his
investment in the father role. A father’s involvement
may vary with the child’s temperament or gender, for
instance. Some fathers may find it trying to engage in
responsive and reciprocal interactions with babies
who have difficult temperaments; others may interact
differently with their sons and daughters.
Public policies have an impact on the amount,
frequency, and type of father involvement. For some
fathers, child support laws, which are not linked to
visitation rights, are a deterrent to child contact. Simi-
larly, parental leave policies make it difficult for a fa-
ther to take time away from work to take care of his
child. Most employers do not offer parental leave,
and when it is offered, it is unpaid. This lack of sup-
port may create a disincentive for men to be more in-
volved in the care of their children.
Research and Good Fathering
Since the 1990s, a new body of research on father-
hood has emerged that goes beyond the simple di-
chotomy of presence versus absence to a deeper
understanding of the multidimensional levels of pa-
rental involvement that make a difference in chil-
dren’s development. There is enough evidence to
suggest that positive and nurturing parental involve-
ment can make an important contribution to the
healthy development of children. In addition to pro-
viding economic resources for their children, posi-
tively involved fathers can make a difference in their
children’s lives by providing options, being a good
role model, and helping them to negotiate complex
social interactions. Children who grow up with in-
A father in San Antonio, Texas, feeds his infant son. Fathers’
attitudes and reports about their infants and their role as fathers
have been found to predict a secure father-infant attachment at
twelve months. (Sandy Felsenthal/Corbis)volved, caring fathers tend to be psychologically bet-
ter adjusted, engage in less risky behavior, and have
healthy relationships with others.
Given that almost a quarter of American children
live without a father and that most of these children
live in poverty, policymakers and others have placed
fathers, especially low-income fathers, on the national
spotlight. There is, however, little research on how
low-income men interact with their children, how pa-
rental involvement alters their own developmental
trajectories, and what barriers they need to overcome
to become positive influences in their children’s lives.
This type of information will be crucial for research-
ers who study antecedents of father involvement and
impacts on children, but also for policymakers and
educators who promote positive father involvement.See also: PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS;
PARENTING; SINGLE-PARENT FAMILIESFATHERS 151