Literature suggests that parents harbor expectations of how
firstborns should behave, then act in accordance with those beliefs.
During infancy, for example, mothers attend to firstborns by
responding to and stimulating them more than latterborns. (Tim
Pannell/Corbis)
more, differences found in IQ among firstborns, lat-
terborns, and only children are typically small and
unstable.
Birth Order and Personality
The results of research regarding the associations
between birth order and personality are varied. In
general, meta-analyses of systematic studies indicate
that firstborn children are achievement-oriented, am-
bitious, conforming, anxious, assertive, and less em-
pathetic than latterborns. Frank J. Sulloway, using a
Darwinian perspective, argued that children assume
different personalities or niches within the family to
gain favor with parents. Firstborns do this by identify-
ing with their parents and by conforming to parental
standards. Because firstborn children are older, wiser,
and more powerful, latterborns become diverse in
their interests and they become more open to experi-
ence. Sulloway’s treatise stemmed from his study of
3,890 career histories of scientists. Even though many
firstborns were scientists (e.g., Isaac Newton, Albert
Einstein, Sigmund Freud), supporters of the scientists
were predominantly latterborns. Sulloway interpret-
ed this finding as indicative of the personality differ-
ences between firstborn and later-born children.
Firstborns tend to reject new theories, especially when
the innovation upsets the status quo, while latterborns
are more receptive to revolutionary thinking. As an
example, Sulloway found that for every 12.8 first-
borns who supported evolution, there were 124 latter-
borns who welcomed the theory. This personality
trait, openness to experience, and the concomitant
defensiveness and conservatism of firstborns holds
true even when size of the family, socioeconomic sta-
tus, and culture are taken into account.
Some researchers have concluded that the effect
of birth order on children’s behavior is overrated.
Many studies have not systematically controlled for
intercorrelated family variables such as age spacing
between siblings, size of family, and ages of siblings.
Thus, certain child behaviors associated with birth
order may actually be due to family size. Beyond birth
order, other predictors such as gender, tempera-
ment, parenting styles, and socioeconomic status in-
fluence children’s development and must be
considered. For example, the literature has indicated
that in families with two sisters, second-born daugh-
ters are more conforming than firstborn daughters.
Are all firstborn children power-hungry conser-
vatives as suggested by Adler, or ‘‘goody-goodies’’ as
proclaimed by Sulloway? Intuitively, the experiences
of firstborns are affected by their ordinal position in
the family. The literature has shown that parents have
disparate expectations for firstborn children, al-
though these expectations vary within and among
cultures. Studies have also demonstrated that parents
are more involved with their firstborn children.
Moreover, evidence exists that there are behavioral,
intellectual, and personality differences between first-
borns and latterborns. Although it is important to ac-
knowledge that birth-order investigators face
methodological challenges, the status of being the
first child in a family clearly plays some role in a
child’s development.See also: BIRTH ORDER AND SPACING; SIBLINGS AND
SIBLING RELATIONSHIPSBibliography
Adler, Alfred. The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler: A Systematic
Presentation in Selections from His Writings, edited and annotat-
ed by Heinz L. Ansbacher and Rowena R. Ansbacher. New
York: Basic, 1956.
Hoff-Ginsberg, Erika. ‘‘The Relation of Birth Order and Socioeco-
nomic Status to Children’s Language Experience and Lan-
guage Development.’’ Applied Psycholinguistics 19 (1998):603–
629.
Sulloway, Frank J. Born to Rebel: Birth Order, Family Dynamics, and
Creative Lives. New York: Pantheon, 1996.
Zajonc, R. B., and Gregory B. Markus. ‘‘Birth Order and Intellectu-
al Development.’’ Psychological Review 82, no. 1 (1975):74–88.
Lisa Baumwell154 FIRSTBORN CHILDREN