Child Development

ies were multiple, compared to 3 percent in the
general population.

In vitro fertilization has expanded to include the
use of donor eggs, donor sperm, cryopreservation, in-
tracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), and the use of
surrogate uteri.

See also: ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION; REPRODUCTIVE
TECHNOLOGIES

Bibliography
Rabe, Thomas, Klaus Diedrich, and T. Strowitzki. Manual on Assist-
ed Reproduction. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2000.
Howard W. Jones Jr.

INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES

EDUCATION ACT

With bipartisan support, the 105th U.S. Congress and
President Clinton signed into law on June 4, 1997,
P.L. 105-76, the latest amendments to the IDEA. This
reauthorized federal legislation is an education, early
intervention, and civil rights law with the goal of en-
suring an opportunity for all children and youth to
learn and develop regardless of disability, from birth
through age twenty-one.

The law, which provides various types of financial
assistance, consists of four parts:

• Part A, ‘‘General Provisions,’’ describes general
  purposes, provisions, and definitions.


• Part B, ‘‘Assistance for Education of All Chil-
  dren with Disabilities,’’ describes federal assis-
  tance to states and local schools in
  implementing the law’s provisions—notably the
  provision of a free appropriate public education
  (FAPE) for children ages three through twenty-
  one years old.


• Part C, ‘‘Early Intervention Program for Infants
  and Toddlers with Disabilities,’’ describes feder-
  al support to states and communities to imple-
  ment the provisions—focusing on family
  centered collaborative services—for children
  from birth to three years old.


• Part D, ‘‘National Activities to Improve Educa-
  tion of Children with Disabilities,’’ describes
  how the federal government supports states and
  communities in implementing Parts B and C of
  the law through various activities and grants
  covering training, research, program improve-
  ment, technical assistance, parent support, and
  information dissemination.
  IDEA, now twenty-five years old, calls for federal-
  state-local partnerships, including sharing the finan-

cial support for the Parts B and C programs. Nation-

wide over six million eligible children receive a free

appropriate public education (FAPE), and almost

200,000 infants and toddlers are served. The U.S. De-

partment to Education and its Office of Special Edu-

cation and Rehabilitative Services administers this

$7.4 billion program that aims to produce positive re-

sults for children across the nation.

See also: DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES

Bibliography

Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) for the IDEA Partnership

Projects. Available from http://www.ideapractices.org/

lawandregs.htm; INTERNET.

Pascal Louis Trohanis

INDUCTIVE REASONING

Inductive reasoning is logical thinking that operates

from specific cases to general principles. For exam-

ple, a preschooler might conclude that dolphins are

fish because they live in water and swim as fish do. As

children develop more sophisticated thinking, they

are able to employ deductive reasoning, in which they

use general principles to form hypotheses. Adoles-

cents, for example, might have heard that dolphins

are mammals. They could test this hypothesis by

identifying the definition of mammal and testing

whether it applies to dolphins.

Inductive reasoning as applied to child develop-

ment has an additional meaning that is very different

from the one described above. Inductive reasoning,

also called induction, is the kind of reasoning used by

parents to help children understand the effect of their

behavior on others. For example, a parent might say

to a preschool-aged child, ‘‘When you throw sand on

your friend he feels very sad and doesn’t want to play

with you anymore.’’ Research demonstrates that this

parental control technique, induction, is associated

with higher levels of social competence in children

than when parents use coercion or ‘‘love withdrawal’’

(Rollins and Thomas 1979).

See also: LEARNING

Bibliography

Berger, Kathleen. The Developing Person through the Life Span, 5th

edition. New York: Worth Publishers, 2000.

Hoffman, Martin. ‘‘Affective and Cognitive Processes in Moral In-

ternalization.’’ In E. T. Higgins, D. N. Ruble, and W. W. Har-

tup eds., Social Cognition and Social Development: A Sociocultural

Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983.

Rollins, Boyd, and Darwin Thomas. ‘‘Parental Support, Power, and

Control Techniques in the Socialization of Children.’’ In Wes-

ley Burr, Reuben Hill, F. Ivan Nye, and Ira Reiss eds., Contem-

porary Theories about the Family. New York: Free Press, 1979.

H. Wallace Goddard

INDUCTIVE REASONING 205