Observational learning is often used in therapeu-
tic settings. People can be trained in assertiveness
through observation of an assertive therapist. In addi-
tion, people can learn to overcome phobias through
observation of others interacting calmly with the ob-
ject of their fear.
In sum, imitation and modeling, both of which
are forms of observational learning, begin with simple
behaviors in infancy and continue on to complex be-
haviors in childhood and adulthood. Bandura has
theorized that cognitive and social factors interact in
observational learning and affect whether an observer
will imitate a behavior or not. Observational learning
occurs in many settings and has also been used in
therapy.
Relationship of Learning to School
Performance
The concepts discussed above (such as condition-
ing, imitation, and modeling) would seem to have lit-
tle role to play in modern education. Teachers,
especially in the later grades, favor so-called construc-
tive approaches to learning, which means that they
arrange the environment in such a way that children
are allowed to discover relationships on their own.
This approach stands in contrast to the concept of
conditioning, where the child can be seen as a passive
receptacle who absorbs what the teacher presents,
without regard to how it fits with the child’s preexist-
ing knowledge. Educators continue to debate these
two extreme approaches, and some forms of condi-
tioning and imitation, such as drilling multiplication
tables, continue to be popular in U.S. schools. Fur-
thermore, in classes for children with special needs,
it is still common for classical and operant principles
to shape children’s behavior. In such classrooms,
teachers award points for acceptable behavior and
take away points for unacceptable behavior. Children
can redeem these points for perks such as extra re-
cess. So, notwithstanding the debate between learn-
ing theorists and constructivists, learning principles
are still common in classrooms although the applica-
tion is sometimes not a conscious result of the teach-
er’s planning.
See also: MEMORY
Bibliography
Bandura, Albert. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social
Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986.
Bandura, Albert, Dorothea Ross, and Sheila Ross. ‘‘Transmission
of Aggression through Imitation of Aggressive Models.’’ Jour-
nal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 63 (1961):575–582.
Domjan, Michael. The Essentials of Conditioning and Learning. Pacific
Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1996.
Freidrich, Lynette, and Aletha Stein. ‘‘Prosocial Television and
Young Children: The Effects of Verbal Labeling and Role
Playing on Learning and Behavior.’’ Child Development 16
(1975):27–36.
Hay, Dale, and Patricia Murray. ‘‘Giving and Requesting: Social
Facilitation of Infants’ Offers to Adults.’’ Infant Behavior and
Development 5 (1982):301–310.
Meltzoff, Andrew, and M. Keith Moore. ‘‘Newborn Infants Imitate
Adult Facial Gestures.’’ Child Development 54 (1983):702–709.
Parke, Ross, and Ronald Slaby. ‘‘The Development of Aggression.’’
In Paul Mussen ed., Handbook of Child Psychology, 4th edition.
New York: Wiley, 1983.
Schiamberg, Lawrence. Child and Adolescent Development. New York:
Macmillan, 1988.
Spiegler, Michael D., and David Guevremont. Contemporary Behav-
ior Therapy, 4th edition. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon, 1990.
Stephen J. Ceci
Rebecca L. Fraser
Maria Gabriela PereiraLEARNING DISABILITIES
It is estimated that 5 percent to 10 percent of school-
age children and adolescents have learning disabili-
ties (LDs), with some estimates approaching 17 per-
cent. LDs fall on a continuum and range in severity
from subtle to marked impairment. A substantial
number of learning-disabled students receive special
education services. In 1975 the U.S. Congress enact-
ed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act
(PL 94-142), which was an educational bill of rights
assuring children with disabilities a free and appro-
priate education in the least restrictive environment.
Disabilities that qualified for services under this law
included mental retardation, hearing deficiencies,
speech and language impairments, visual impair-
ments, emotional disturbances, orthopedic impair-
ments, a variety of medical conditions (categorized as
‘‘other health-impaired’’), and specific learning dis-
abilities. This law was reauthorized under the Educa-
tion of the Handicapped Act amendments and,
subsequently, the Individuals with Disabilities Educa-
tion Act (IDEA). Children with learning disabilities
also may receive services under Section 504 of the Re-
habilitation Act of 1973 (a civil rights law that protects
individuals with disabilities from discrimination by
recipients of federal financial assistance). The latter
law is designed to provide modifications and accom-
modations to minimize the negative effect on ‘‘major
life activities’’; all IDEA children qualify under Sec-
tion 504, but the reverse is not true. As many as 50
percent of children with LDs have concomitant disor-
ders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,
anxiety problems, school refusal, depression, Touret-
te’s syndrome, or behavior problems. It is estimated
that 35 percent to 50 percent of students seen in men-
tal health clinics have language and/or learning disor-
ders.240 LEARNING DISABILITIES