FIGURE 1
tracted from the icon or echo is lost. Hence, much of
what enters the senses never becomes part of long-
term memory. Information that is identified by indi-
viduals is often maintained in working memory while
the individual interprets it, transforms it, or uses it to
solve problems. Applying the computer metaphor,
the contents of working memory correspond to open
files and running programs. Information moves from
working memory into long-term storage when it is
processed in a way that makes it meaningful to the in-
dividual.
The long-term memory store is often incorrectly
described as containing complete and actual repre-
sentations of past events. In contrast, long-term mem-
ory is understood by psychologists to be a
reconstructive process. Memories can be altered
when individuals encounter new material that inter-
feres with stored information or make inferences that
are added to a representation. A well-documented
way in which inference occurs is through the opera-
tion of schemas, which are organized sets of facts (for
example, beliefs about what happens during a visit to
the doctor). In a classic study conducted in 1932,
Frederick Bartlett read English research participants
a story that described events that were inconsistent
with their own life experiences and hence seemed bi-
zarre. When they were later asked to recall the story,
the participants distorted the actions that took place
in a manner that made them consistent with their own
culture.
In addition to the memory stores described
above, mental strategies are an important component
of the information processing system. Strategies cor-
respond to the software of the computer. They are
learned procedures that individuals use to direct at-
tention, move information from working to long-
term memory, or apply techniques for solving prob-
lems. A second grader who repeats a telephone
number before dialing it is using verbal rehearsal, a
simple memory strategy; a ninth grader who learns a
new vocabulary word by using it to describe a princi-
ple he has previously learned is using elaboration, an
especially effective strategy. Strategies make it possi-
ble for memory to be intentional, the term applied
when information is deliberately learned or purpose-
fully retrieved. In contrast, memory is described as in-
cidental when information is acquired in the process
of performing another activity.
It should be apparent from even this brief intro-
duction that the components of information process-
ing are constantly interacting as a system. The
contents of the long-term store are important in en-
coding, the process of taking information from the
world into the memory system. Information stored in
long-term memory makes it possible to identify the
stimuli in the sensory register so that it can be moved
to another store. Knowledge from long-term memory
enables the application of strategies or problem-
solving procedures in working memory. The contents
of permanent memory also determine to a large ex-
tent how meaningful new material is, and hence how256 MEMORY