guide memory performance, emerges later in the ele-
mentary school years. For example, a fifth grader
could be expected to remember what to take on a
school field trip by reviewing the activities involved
and packing accordingly (e.g., ‘‘things to do on the
bus,’’ ‘‘what I need for the nature walk,’’ ‘‘things I’ll
need at lunch’’) by herself. It is unlikely, however, that
a third grader would use organization as a guide with-
out the direction of an adult. Elaboration, a highly ef-
fective strategy that involves actively creating a
representation integrating new information with ex-
isting information, may not be used spontaneously by
children until early adolescence. An eighth grader
may remember the definition of the word ‘‘fruition’’
by creating an image of a ripe pear on a bough, but
it is unlikely that most sixth graders would do so.
Most students do not acquire optimally effective
study skills, which can be considered forms of memo-
ry strategies, until adolescence. By the later elementa-
ry school years, children allocate more study time to
test items that they have previously missed on practice
tests; in contrast, younger elementary school children
devote comparable amounts of attention to items that
they have previously gotten correct and incorrect. By
high school good students can be expected to take
spontaneous and effective notes and to emphasize key
information in studying.
Regardless of the strategy under consideration,
its use emerges initially in highly supportive task set-
tings. At early points in the acquisition of memory
strategies, children use a strategy when adults instruct
them to use the strategy but they do not generate the
strategies spontaneously, a limitation described as a
production deficiency. Additional preparation time,
the use of familiar materials, and cues that may re-
duce memory demands are other factors that increase
the likelihood that strategies will be used. When they
are fully acquired, strategies are applied spontane-
ously in a wide array of task settings. Metamemory, or
knowledge about the operation of the memory sys-
tem, contributes to the development of strategies.
Metamemory involves understanding the demands of
the task and the relevant characteristics of the re-
memberer, as well as identifying and using effective
task approaches and monitoring their effectiveness.
In general, the development of metamemory in-
creases with age, corresponding to changes in actual
memory performance.
Fostering Children’s Memory
Development
Memory develops largely through social interac-
tion, and consequently parents and teachers play a
critical role in assisting children in developing good
memories. During early childhood, everyday adult-
child interactions provide the basis for memory devel-
opment by fostering language development and
helping children acquire scripts for common events.
Conversations that include reminiscing about the re-
cent past are significant in helping children under-
stand what memory is and what should be
remembered. Developing family traditions and par-
ticipating in rituals encourage reminiscing.
When a child begins formal schooling, adults can
contribute to the child’s acquisition of metamemory
and memory strategies by modeling their own ap-
proaches to tasks involving memory and discussing
their memory failures. It is important that teachers
and parents recognize that strategies develop over an
extended period. Children’s use of effective memory
strategies in studying should be monitored, and
adults should help children simplify tasks by provid-
ing external memory aids and other supports as
needed. Informal instruction in the use of memory
strategies should be incorporated into class presenta-
tions and assignments.
It is also important to keep in mind that memory
is facilitated by advances in other domains of develop-
ment. As examples, narrative skills increase children’s
abilities to provide reports of their personal experi-
ence; problem-solving techniques increase functional
working memory capacity. The development of the
knowledge base plays a vital role in memory perfor-
mance. Hence, providing children with opportunities
to learn about the world contributes significantly to
their capacity to remember effectively.See also: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT; LEARNINGBibliography
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