See also: THEORY OF MIND
Bibliography
Flavell, John. ‘‘Metacognition and Cognitive Monitoring: A New
Area of Cognitive-Developmental Inquiry.’’ American Psycholo-
gist 34 (1979):906–911.
Sally A. Srokowski
METHODS OF STUDYING CHILDREN
When a researcher decides to study children, the task
usually begins by choosing a topic or behavior to
study and then focusing on a basic method that will
allow the information to be gathered in the most effi-
cient and effective manner. Researchers of child de-
velopment have a variety of research methods from
which to choose. These methods differ in important
ways. For example, in a case study, the research tends
to not intrude very much into the lives of the subjects
of the study, and experimental control is not a major
concern of the researcher. Conversely, in an experi-
mental or quasi-experimental study, the research is
typically more intrusive, and the researchers desire a
certain amount of experimental control. Understand-
ing the strengths and weaknesses of each method
plays an important role in deciding which one to use
in a particular study.
The type of method the researcher chooses is
driven by several factors: the hypothesis that is being
tested or the research question that is being asked,
the type of information that is being gathered, how
the study is designed, the number of participants, and
any ethical considerations that relate to the partici-
pants. No matter which method is used, it is impera-
tive that the research be conducted according to
scientifically accepted procedures.
One of the first tasks of the child development re-
searcher is to decide on a basic method by which to
collect information. Scientific inquiries generally fall
into two broad categories: those conducted using
qualitative methods and those conducted using quan-
titative methods. As the word ‘‘qualitative’’ implies,
qualitative methods employ nonnumeric designs and
attempt to study phenomena inductively, as a process,
and in the place in which the phenomena occur. Con-
versely, the quantitative approach attempts to mea-
sure phenomena numerically and make conclusions
deductively and with respect to outcomes or products.
Both approaches are well represented in the study of
children.
Qualitative Methods of Child Study
The major types of qualitative methods include
observation, self-reports, and the case study. Re-
searchers often choose to view behavior directly
through some kind of systematic observation. There
are a number of options depending upon the level of
intrusion that is desired and the type of environment
in which the observation is to occur. The least intru-
sive form of observation is called naturalistic. In con-
ducting a naturalistic observation, the researcher
observes behavior in a natural environment, such as
in a home, day-care, or school setting. This can be an
excellent way to observe what happens in the every-
day setting. The drawback, however, is that the re-
searcher has little control over the environment and,
consequently, over any extraneous variables (factors
other than the behavior being researched). Further-
more, the behavior may not be displayed very often,
or at all, during the observation. To remedy this
problem, the researcher may choose to set up the ob-
servation in a place where the conditions are the same
for all participants. A laboratory setting or contrived
classroom, for example, could be set up for this pur-
pose. In such a setting, unfortunately, participants
may not behave in the same way that they would in a
normal setting. Regardless of how the observation is
set up, data from observations, sometimes referred to
as field notes, must be studied carefully for themes
and major ideas.
The use of self-reports is another option for gath-
ering information qualitatively. There are two forms
of self-reports. The first is the interview method, in
which the researcher poses questions to participants
in either informal or formal settings and records the
responses. The second form is the self-report instru-
ment, in which participants respond to a question-
naire or some other type of structured instrument.
Both forms have advantages and disadvantages.
Structured instruments provide control over external
and extraneous stimuli, permit comparisons of the re-
sponses, and aid in efficient data collection. Inter-
views may provide richer information and could tap
aspects of the participants that go unmeasured in
structured instruments, such as how the participants
think and function in the natural setting. Unfortu-
nately, the results of the open interview are difficult
to use for comparison purposes among individuals or
groups of individuals. The rich data gained through
interviews could come at the cost of standardization,
thereby ruling out comparisons across participant re-
sponses.
The third qualitative method of research is the
clinical method, or case study. The case study allows
the researcher to gain detailed information on one in-
dividual’s development. The rich data provides an
extensive picture of the developmental process of an
individual. In turn this means that there is only one
person in the study and that any conclusions that areMETHODS OF STUDYING CHILDREN 269