Maria Montessori (right) created a system of education based on
skill development in specific areas, including practical living and
language. (AP/Wide World Photos)
pared environment and the teacher. The Montessori
classroom is usually divided into four areas: practical
living, sensorial, math, and language. Each area con-
tains beautifully crafted, authentic materials designed
for independent use by the child in order to build
skills in each of these areas, as well as to develop dis-
positions including self-direction, freedom, and
order. Many Montessori materials are self-correcting,
clearly indicating if they are being used successfully.
The teacher’s role is to carefully observe the children
and introduce activities and modify the environment
in order to support each child’s exploration and
growth. The Montessori Method has had a profound
impact on the field of early childhood education both
in terms of the materials and activities Maria Montes-
sori developed and her approach to teacher observa-
tion and planning.
See also: PRESCHOOL
Bibliography
Lillard, Paula. Montessori: A Modern Approach. New York: Schocken
Books, 1972.
Martha J. BuellMORAL DEVELOPMENT
During the last half of the twentieth century, percep-
tions of increased school violence within the United
States renewed public concern for children’s moral
development. The study of moral development in-
cludes the way individuals reason about morality, the
emotions associated with morality, the actions or be-
havior demonstrating morality, and the socialization
or teaching of morality. Morality is the level of agree-
ment or disagreement with a system of moral rules or
standards of right and wrong. Although some chil-
dren as young as thirty-four months know the differ-
ence between morality and social custom, the
distinction between the two concepts is often distort-
ed. For example, many children considered flag
burning to have moral consequences. Respect for a
flag is a social convention or a culturally agreed upon
and accepted custom, regulation, or protocol that
changes with social opinion. Moral rules, however,
rarely change. Considering this confusion, research
concerning moral reasoning, emotionality, behavior,
and socialization often overlaps with topics concern-
ing other types of prosocial development.Reasoning
Like Jean Piaget, the pioneer of cognitive theory,
Lawrence Kohlberg, a prominent moral development
researcher, believed that people’s perceptions, atti-
tudes, and actions are influenced by the way they
think or reason. So, he studied the reasoning process
employed to resolve ethical dilemmas, not the result-
ing judgments or rules that foster social justice.
Through research, he discovered three progressive
stages of moral reasoning: preconventional, conven-
tional, and postconventional. Each stage has two
phases. All six levels reflect a type of decision that
could not be made at an earlier age. Even though an
elementary-school-age child has an improved under-
standing of others’ beliefs and thoughts, children be-
tween the ages of six and eleven tend to reason in
preconventional or self-focused ways. At first, they are
likely to make judgments that reflect the need to obey
moral rules to avoid punishment, but in later elemen-
tary grades, reasoning is likely to reflect a need for
reciprocity or in-kind treatment. A person’s moral
reasoning ability, however, develops over a lifetime
and individuals, from the age of twelve on, tend to
reason in conventional or community-focused ways.276 MORAL DEVELOPMENT