Ray, W. J., and R. Ravizza. Methods toward a Science of Behavior and
Experience, 2nd edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1985.
E G Bishop
NEONATE
The term ‘‘neonate’’ is defined as any infant up to the
age of twenty-eight days (i.e., through 27 days, 23
hours, and 59 minutes from the moment of birth).
The neonatal period represents the end stage of new-
born development that spans the entire time before
birth (prenatal), starting with the fertilized embryo.
Early embryonic development is described in stages
that correspond to time periods during which human
embryos develop specific morphological characteris-
tics. Stage one begins at fertilization, spanning the
first fifty-six days and ending as stage twenty-three.
Next, at the fifty-seventh day, the ‘‘fetal period’’ be-
gins; it ends with the completion of delivery outside
of the mother. The neonate is unique in his/her vul-
nerability to the extrauterine environment resulting
in higher risk for mortality and morbidity compared
to later in infancy. Precise terminology is important
for accurate interpretation and comparisons of data-
bases related to newborn concerns.
See also: BIRTH; PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Bibliography
American Academy of Pediatrics and the American College of Ob-
stetricians and Gynecologists. Guidelines for Perinatal Care, 4th
edition. Washington, DC: American Academy of Pediatrics,
1997.
Moore, Keith, and T. V. N. Persaud. The Developing Human, Clini-
cally Oriented Embryology. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1998.
Carol A. Miller
NUTRITION
Food and nutrition are at the heart of the normal
growth and development of children. Without the nu-
trients that food provides, new tissue, skin, muscle,
and bones cannot be added to the body and old parts
cannot be repaired. At each of the four stages of child-
hood, different nutrition issues are priorities.
Infancy
Provision of adequate energy and nutrients is
needed in the first year of life to support the most
rapid growth and development period in a person’s
life. From birth to six months of age about 108 calo-
ries per kilogram per day are needed; by twelve
months a baby needs about 100 calories per kilogram
per day. Since babies can eat only a small volume of
food to support rapid growth, they require nutrient-
dense, highly caloric foods. Fat must contribute at
least 30 percent of total calories to meet the demands
of growth and development. Babies should double
their birthweight by four to six months of age and tri-
ple it by one year. On average, their length will in-
crease by 50 percent in the first year of life.
Mother’s breast milk is the best source of nutri-
ents for a newborn. A full-term infant’s digestive sys-
tem has been specially designed to digest breast milk.
Whether by breast or by bottle, feeding on demand
is best. Infants can self-regulate their food intake to
match their nutritional needs, based upon internal
hunger and satiety cues. Parents need to pay attention
to their baby’s cues and feed them accordingly. If a
baby is bottle-fed and signals that he is full by pulling
away or easily becoming distracted, consumption of
the entire bottle is not necessary.
For the first four to six months, babies should be
fed only breast milk or correctly prepared infant for-
mula. Children under the age of twelve months
should not have cow’s milk. Between four and six
months of age, children are usually developmentally
ready to try moist, soft foods. To easily identify aller-
gies, one food should be introduced at a time, with a
three-day wait before the introduction of another new
food. Parents should encourage the child to try new
foods, one at a time. During the first year or so, chil-
dren will learn to chew, swallow, and manipulate fin-
ger foods; drink from a cup; and eventually feed
themselves. Of course, they will make lots of mess
while learning these skills, so patience is important.
Bottle-fed infants should be weaned from the bottle
by twelve to fourteen months of age. There is no spe-
cific time to wean a breast-fed child; the longer a baby
is on breast milk, the better it will be for her health
and well-being.Early Childhood
Children tend to be unpredictable, picky eaters
during the early childhood phase of growth and de-
velopment (one to four years of age). Parents should
allow the child to explore new foods through touch,
smell, and taste. It is normal to offer the child a new
food five to ten times before he will try to eat it. A food
that a child likes one day may not be one he likes the
next day. Children may also eat a lot one day and very
little the next. They usually eat just one or two foods
per meal. This is normal behavior for a child and par-
ents should not worry that the child is not eating
enough. Children’s growth rates and energy needs
decrease during this period.
Parents should offer their children a variety of
foods and act as role models by eating a variety of284 NEONATE