ers shared this view until quite recently. This period
of life (generally considered to run from age ten to
age twenty-five) was seen as a time of ‘‘storm and
stress.’’ But what is adolescent development really
like? Clearly it is a time of great change on many le-
vels. Probably most dramatic are the biological
changes associated with puberty. These changes in-
clude dramatic shifts in the shape of the body, in-
creases in hormones, and changes in brain
architecture. These biological shifts are directly
linked to changes in sexual interest, cognitive capaci-
ties, and physical capacities. There are also major so-
cial changes associated with the school-linked
transitions and with changes in the roles adolescents
are expected to play by all those around them. Final-
ly, there are major psychological changes linked to in-
creasing social and cognitive maturity. In fact, very
few developmental periods are characterized by so
many changes at so many different levels. With rapid
change comes a heightened potential for both posi-
tive and negative outcomes. And, although most indi-
viduals pass through this developmental period
without excessively high levels of ‘‘storm and stress,’’
a substantial number of individuals do experience
some difficulties.
Adolescence is also a time when individuals make
many choices and engage in a wide range of behaviors
likely to influence the rest of their lives. For example,
adolescents pick which high school courses to take,
which after-school activities to participate in, and
which peer groups to join. They begin to make future
educational and occupational plans and to imple-
ment these plans through secondary school course
work and out-of-school vocational and volunteer ac-
tivity choices. Finally, some experiment with quite
problematic behaviors such as drug and alcohol con-
sumption and unprotected sexual intercourse. Most
of these youth do not suffer long-term consequences
for this experimentation, although a few do. Under-
standing what distinguishes between these two groups
is one of the key research issues related to develop-
ment during adolescence.
Grand Theories of Adolescent
Development
Erik Erikson, a German-born American psycho-
analyst, proposed the most comprehensive theoreti-
cal analysis of development during adolescence as
part of his more general theoretical analysis of human
development across the life span. He hypothesized
that developing a sense of mastery, a sense of identity,
and a sense of intimacy were the key challenges for
this period of life. He also stressed that these chal-
lenges are played out in an increasingly complex set
of social contexts and in both cultural and historical
settings. Optimal resolution of these challenges de-
pends on the psychosocial, physical, and cognitive as-
sets of the individual and the developmental
appropriateness of the social contexts encountered by
the individual across all of the years of adolescence.
Others have expanded these challenges to in-
clude autonomy, sexuality, intimacy, achievement,
and identity. In many cultural groups, these chal-
lenges translate into more specific tasks, including (1)
changing the nature of the relationship between
youth and their parents so that the youth can take on
a more ‘‘mature’’ role in the social fabric of their com-
munity (in white American culture this change often
takes the form of greater independence from parents
and greater decision-making power over one’s own
current and future behaviors; in other cultures this
change can take the form of greater responsibility for
family support and increased participation in com-
munity decision making); (2) exploring changing so-
cial-sexual roles and identities; (3) transforming peer
relationships into deeper friendships and intimate
partnerships; (4) exploring personal and social iden-
tities; (5) focusing some of this identity work on mak-
ing future life plans; and (6) participating in a series
of experiences and choices that facilitate future eco-
nomic independence or interdependence.Biological Changes Associated with
Puberty
As a result of the activation of the hormones con-
trolling pubertal development, early adolescents un-
dergo a growth spurt, develop primary and secondary
sex characteristics, become fertile, and experience in-
creased sexual drive. There is also some evidence that
the hormonal changes are linked to behaviors such as
aggression, sexuality, and mood swings. These rela-
tions are quite weak, however, and are often overrid-
den by social experiences.
In general, pubertal changes begin twelve to
eighteen months earlier for girls than for boys. As a
result, anyone working with youth in grade six will im-
mediately notice a major difference in the physical
maturity between girls and boys. Many girls at this age
look and act like fully mature young women, while
most of the males still look and act like boys. The im-
pact of these differences on the development of
young men and women will vary by cultural group de-
pending on cultural beliefs and norms, such as appro-
priate roles for physically mature individuals,
appropriate heterosexual activities, and ideals related
to female and male beauty.
There are also major individual differences in pu-
bertal development within each sex. Some children
begin their pubertal changes earlier than others. The8 ADOLESCENCE