Sensory Systems in Concert
The sensory systems work in concert with each
other to enable an infant to engage with the environ-
ment and gain control over the body and its capabili-
ties. Consider a sensory explanation of what one
might observe when watching a six-month-old infant
playing ball using all seven senses. As he touches and
hits the ball, the infant receives cues as to whether the
ball is hard or soft, smooth or rough. He discovers the
texture and taste using his tongue to lick the ball
when it is near or in his mouth, as well as any odors
by smelling the ball. The infant receives visual stimu-
lation by the color of the ball and by watching it roll
or bounce. The auditory system is triggered when a
noise, such as a thud, ring, or squeak is made as the
infant hits the surface of the ball, throws it, or shakes
it. The vestibular system is activated as the infant is
sitting up, maintaining his balance. Finally, the infant
uses proprioception as he is moving his arms and legs
in space while throwing, pushing, or hitting the ball
and watching it with his eyes and maintaining his bal-
ance.
Adults can encourage sensory development in
their infants by providing a safe and stimulating envi-
ronment for discovery. Sensory exploration is impor-
tant to infant development, specifically for
establishing new neuronal pathways in the brain and
strengthening already developed neuronal pathways.
See also: METHODS OF STUDYING CHILDREN;
MILESTONES OF DEVELOPMENT
Bibliography
Coren, Stanley, Lawrence Ward, and James Enns. Sensation and
Perception, 4th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College,
1994.
Dunn, Winnie. ‘‘Sensory Dimensions of Performance.’’ In C. Chris-
tiansen and C. Baum eds., Occupational Therapy: Overcoming
Human Performance Deficits. Thorofare, NJ: Slack, 1991.
Kandel, Eric, James Schwartz, and Thomas Jessell. Principles of
Neural Science, 4th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000.
Erin Nash Casler
SEPARATION ANXIETY
Separation anxiety is characterized by an intense
emotional reaction on the part of a young child to the
departure of a person with whom the child has estab-
lished an emotional attachment. Signs of separation
anxiety, such as crying when the caregiver prepares
to leave, typically emerge around six to eight months
when infants have formed a representation of their
caretakers as reliable providers of comfort and securi-
ty. Distress reactions peak around fourteen to twenty
months at which time toddlers may follow or cling to
caregivers to prevent their departure. Although most
children show signs of separation anxiety, the intensi-
ty of an individual child’s distress varies depending
on: (1) the availability of another caregiver with whom
the child has a close bond; (2) the familiarity of the
situation; (3) previous experience with the caretaker
leaving; and (4) the child’s sense of control over the
situation. Gradually, separation anxiety becomes less
intense and less frequent, diminishing by age two.See also: ATTACHMENT; PARENT-CHILD
RELATIONSHIPS; STRANGER ANXIETYBibliography
Bowlby, John. Attachment and Loss, Vol. 3: Loss. New York: Basic,
1980.
Becky Kochenderfer-LaddSEX AND GENDER DIFFERENCES
See: GENDER-ROLE DEVELOPMENTSEX EDUCATION
Sex education usually refers to programs offered in
schools, typically from grades five through twelve,
that cover sexuality and reproduction. Sexuality re-
fers to the quality or state of being sexual and includes
all thoughts and behaviors that have to do with an in-
dividual as a sexual being. For example, bodily
changes at puberty, decisions to engage in kissing,
petting, or having sexual intercourse, and using or
not using contraceptives can be included under the
broad term ‘‘sexuality.’’ Sex education programs are
also called family life education, sexuality education,
and reproductive health education. Sometimes sex
education is offered in the form of human immu-
nodeficiency virus (HIV) education. In 1999 more
than 93 percent of all public high schools in the Unit-
ed States offered courses on sexuality or HIV. Sex ed-
ucation is not a required subject in all school districts,
and programs can vary from an entire course on
human sexuality to integration of information in biol-
ogy, health education, physical education, and con-
sumer and family science (home economics) classes.
Many programs allow parents to choose whether or
not they want their son or daughter to participate.
Originally, sex education was started in schools to
teach students about physical and sexual maturation.
Over the years the goals became decreasing the inci-
dence of teen pregnancy, delaying the onset of sexual
activity among teens, and decreasing the rates of sex-
ually transmitted diseases (STDs) and HIV cases.
Studies conducted from the 1980s to the early twenty-
first century indicated that few sex educationSEX EDUCATION 357