The beginning of the twenty-first century is an ex-
citing time for social development researchers—
much has been learned and it is likely that the rate of
learning will rapidly accelerate in the future. As
knowledge of human genetics increases, the focus on
how much behavior is affected by genes is likely to shift
to how behavior is affected by genes. Additionally, al-
though much has been learned about biological, fa-
milial, and peer socializing influences during infancy,
childhood, and adolescence, long-term studies con-
sidering multiple contexts are needed to examine the
interactive effects of these influences on social devel-
opment.
See also: FRIENDSHIP; PARENTING; PLAY; STAGES OF
DEVELOPMENT
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Noel A. Card
Jenny Isaacs
Ernest V. E. HodgesSPATIAL ABILITIES
Spatial ability refers to skill in perceiving the visual
world, transforming and modifying initial percep-
tions, and mentally recreating spatial aspects of one’s
visual experience without the relevant stimuli. Several
categories of spatial abilities may be distinguished.
Spatial orientation is the ability to keep track of ob-
jects or locations in space even after a rotation or
movement to a new location; spatial perception in-
volves determining spatial relationships with respect
to gravity or one’s own body in spite of distracting in-
formation; and spatial manipulation involves the abil-
ity to mentally rotate two- or three-dimensional
figures rapidly and accurately.
Spatial abilities develop, in part, when children
manipulate and explore objects and environments. In
general, there tends to be a strong relationship be-
tween how well one performs on verbal tasks and non-
verbal tasks. However, some people are more skillful
in one area than another, and some researchers argue
for recognizing and valuing people’s strengths with
different abilities.See also: PLAYBibliography
Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelli-
gences. New York: Basic Books, 1985.
Linn, Marcia, C., and Anne C. A. Petersen. ‘‘Emergences and Char-
acteristics of Sex Differences in Spatial Ability: A Meta-
Analysis.’’ Child Development 56 (1985):1479–1498.
Michael E. McCartySPOCK, BENJAMIN (1903–1998)
Born in New Haven, Connecticut, and trained as a
medical doctor, Benjamin ‘‘Ben’’ Spock was best
known for his books on child care and parenting.
More copies of the many editions of his book, Baby
and Child Care, were sold than any other book in the
world, with the exception of the Bible.
Benjamin McLane Spock was the first of six chil-
dren born to Mildred and Benjamin Ives Spock.
Many of Spock’s beliefs about child care originated
with his own upbringing and his helping to care for
his siblings. At his mother’s charge, he attended pro-
gressive, private schools throughout his childhood. InSPOCK, BENJAMIN 381