cal challenges associated with puberty, as well as social
challenges such as moving into middle school and de-
veloping cross-sex relationships. Moreover, there is
an accumulation of other types of stressful events dur-
ing adolescence that exceed those experienced prior
to this period. Interestingly, some studies have sug-
gested that the nature of stress during adolescence
may differ in girls and boys. For example, Karen D.
Rudolph and Constance Hammen found that adoles-
cent girls experience particularly high levels of inter-
personal stress, such as conflicts with parents and
friends, whereas adolescent boys experience particu-
larly high levels of noninterpersonal stress, such as
school-related difficulties.
Interactions between Stress and
Development
A large body of evidence links a variety of stres-
sors to poor psychological and physical health in chil-
dren. For instance, cumulative and chronic stresses
have been found to be associated with heightened
emotional distress (e.g., anxiety, depression, low self-
esteem), behavior problems (e.g., aggression, delin-
quency), and physical illness. Traumatic stressors,
such as physical or sexual victimization, may lead to
severe disturbances such as posttraumatic stress
symptoms. Even stress ensuing from normative
events may interfere with children’s adjustment. For
example, work by Jacquelynne Eccles and Carol
Midgley demonstrated that school transitions may
undermine achievement and emotional well-being in
some adolescents, particularly girls. Importantly,
many of these studies have demonstrated that expo-
sure to stress predicts increases in adjustment prob-
lems over time, suggesting that stress exerts a
potentially long-term influence on children’s devel-
opmental course rather than merely a temporary dis-
ruption.
Protective and Risk Factors
Although research consistently has documented
problematic consequences of stress, all children do
not respond to stress in the same way. Hence, it is crit-
ical to understand when stress is likely to impair psy-
chological and physical well-being and when stress
may contribute to less adverse, or even positive, out-
comes. This issue has been addressed through efforts
to identify characteristics of children and their envi-
ronments that either heighten (risk factors) or attenu-
ate (protective factors) the adverse effects of stress.
A range of personal and environmental charac-
teristics play a role in determining how children react
to stress. In terms of psychological characteristics of
youth, children’s views of themselves and their com-
petencies may influence their responses. For instance,
children who attribute negative events in their lives to
internal, stable, and global characteristics (e.g., ‘‘I
failed a test because I am stupid’’), and who feel a lack
of control over important outcomes in their lives show
increased vulnerability to depression in response to
stress. In contrast, high levels of academic and social
competence, high self-esteem, and adaptive coping
styles may help children to deal effectively with stress,
thereby protecting them against negative conse-
quences. External resources, such as the presence of
a supportive family environment or strong friend-
ships, also may buffer children from the harmful ef-
fects of stress, but this possibility needs to be explored
further before definitive conclusions can be drawn.
Children’s responses to stress also may differ ac-
cording to their gender and their age. Some research
has shown that girls and boys display different types
of vulnerability. In particular, girls may be more likely
to respond to stress with emotional distress, such as
feelings of anxiety and depression, whereas boys may
be more likely to respond to stress with behavior
problems, such as aggression. So far, little consistent
evidence has emerged regarding the impact of partic-
ular types of stress across development, but it is possi-
ble that certain stressors may be more or less salient
at different life stages. For instance, school-related
stress may become particularly important during
middle childhood, whereas friendship-related stress
may become particularly important during early ado-
lescence.An area that has received little attention concerns
the positive consequences of stress. It has been said
‘‘whatever does not kill us makes us stronger.’’ This
statement reflects the rather counterintuitive idea
that, under some circumstances, the experience of
stress actually may promote healthy development.
For instance, encountering stressful situations may
enhance children’s strategies for coping with future
stress or may strengthen social bonds as children seek
support or advice from friends and family. Moreover,
successful coping experiences may foster a sense of
self-efficacy and increase children’s self-esteem. An
interesting direction for future research will be to dis-
tinguish when stress acts as a threat that undermines
healthy development and when stress acts as a chal-
lenge that stimulates mastery or growth.Remaining Questions and Implications
Despite well-established linkages between stress
and adjustment across development, the field of life-
stress research in children is still in its infancy. Addi-
tional research is needed to address several unan-
swered questions concerning the role of stress in390 STRESS