Child Development

adults (e.g., parents, teachers, coaches), crisis ho-
tlines, or trained professionals (e.g., counselors, ther-
apists, doctors). Most importantly, one should never
leave an individual in crisis alone, and one must act
quickly if the person appears to be in danger.

See also: MENTAL DISORDERS; PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT

Bibliography
Berman, Alan, and David Jobes. Adolescent Suicide: Assessment and
Intervention. Washington, DC: American Psychological Associ-
ation, 1991.
Kirk, William. Adolescent Suicide. Champaign, IL: Research Press,
1993.
Maris, Ronald, Morton Silverman, and Silvia Canetto. Review of
Suicidology, 1997. New York: Guilford Press, 1997.
Nelson, Richard, and Judith Galas. The Power to Prevent Suicide.
Minneapolis: Free Spirit Publishing, 1994.
Page, Randy. ‘‘Youth Suicidal Behavior: Completions, Attempts,
and Ideations.’’ High School Journal 80, no. 1 (1996):60–65.
Popenhagen, Mark, and Roxanne Qualley. ‘‘Adolescent Suicide:
Detection, Intervention, and Prevention.’’ Professional School
Counseling 1, no. 4 (1998):30–36.
Robbins, Paul R. Adolescent Suicide. Jefferson, NC: McFarland,
1998.
Jeana L. Magyar-Moe

SURROGATE MOTHERHOOD

Surrogate motherhood is a practice in which one
woman (the surrogate mother) intentionally becomes
pregnant and gives birth to an infant who will be
adopted by another woman (the adoptive mother), as
arranged by a legal contract prior to conception. The
surrogate mother may be impregnated by artificial in-
semination with the adoptive mother’s husband’s
semen or may have implanted in her uterus an em-
bryo conceived in vitro (outside the body). The con-
tract frees the surrogate mother of parental rights
and responsibilities; it may guarantee financial sup-
port and payment of medical costs but does not in-
volve a direct payment for the child. Relevant ethical
issues include reproductive freedom and rights, in-
formed consent of the surrogate mother, and the best
interests of the child. Roman Catholicism and Islam
object to the procedure. In practice, some problems
have occurred when surrogate mothers have been re-
luctant to give up children, and some adoptive par-
ents have refused to accept children.

See also: PARENTING; REPRODUCTIVE
TECHNOLOGIES

Bibliography
American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Bioethics and
Committee on Early Childhood, Adoption, and Dependent

Care. ‘‘Policy Statement.’’ American Academy of Pediatrics News

9, no. 7 (1992).

Jean Mercer

SWADDLING OF INFANTS

Swaddling is the practice of binding or wrapping an

infant in bands of cloth. An ancient custom, it is prac-

ticed in places as diverse as rural China, the American

Southwest, Eastern Europe, and the Peruvian high-

lands. The reasons given for swaddling are also varied

and include keeping the infant warm and protected

in cold climates and at high altitudes, developing obe-

dience, facilitating holding, and ensuring the baby’s

physical safety. Empirical studies have demonstrated

that swaddling does serve to maintain higher, more

stable temperatures inside the infant’s microenviron-

ment. Swaddling has also been studied, with limited

success, as a possible technique for managing pain,

enhancing neuromuscular development, and length-

ening the sleep time of high-risk infants. Although

swaddling retards motor performance while the baby

remains wrapped, infants quickly catch up once swad-

dling is discontinued. A few studies have also suggest-

ed that swaddling may increase the risk of sudden

infant death syndrome or of respiratory infections.

See also: INFANCY; SLEEPING

Bibliography

Li, Yan, Jintao Liu, Fengying Liu, Guamg ping Guo, Tokie Anme,

and Hiroshi Ushijima. ‘‘Maternal Childrearing Behaviors and

Correlates in Rural Minority Areas of Yunnan, China.’’ Devel-

opmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 21 (2000):114–122.

Tronick, Edward, R. B. Thomas, and M. Daltabuit. ‘‘The Quechua

Manta Pouch: A Caretaking Practice for Buffering the Peruvi-

an Infant against the Multiple Stressors of High Altitude.’’

Child Development 65 (1994):1005–1013.

Robin L. Harwood

Xin Feng

SYMBOLIC THOUGHT

Symbolic thought is the representation of reality

through the use of abstract concepts such as words,

gestures, and numbers. Evidence of symbolic thought

is generally present in most children by the age of

eighteen months, when signs and symbols (‘‘signifi-

ers’’) are used reliably to refer to concrete objects,

events, and behaviors (‘‘significates’’). The hallmark

of symbolic thought is language, which uses words or

symbols to express concepts (mother, family), abstract

references to transcend concrete reality (comfort, fu-

ture), and allows intangibles to be manipulated

(mathematical symbols). According to Jean Piaget,

SYMBOLIC THOUGHT 399