Bibliography
Duncan, Greg J., and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, eds. Consequences of
Growing Up Poor. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. 1997.
McLoyd, Vonnie C., A. M. Cauce, D. Takeuchi, and L. Wilson,
‘‘Marital Processes and Parental Socialization in Families of
Color: A Decade Review of Research.’’ Journal of Marriage and
the Family 62 (2000): 1070-1093.
McLoyd, Vonnie C., and Bo Lozoff. ‘‘Racial and Ethnic Trends in
Children’s Behavior and Development.’’ In Neil J. Smelser,
William Julius Wilson, and Faith Mitchell eds., America Becom-
ing: Racial Trends and Their Consequences. Washington, DC: Na-
tional Academy Press, 2001.
Tatum, Beverly Daniel. Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in
the Cafeteria? And Other Conversations About Race. New York:
Basic Books, 1997.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Trends in the Well-
Being of America’s Children and Youth. Washington, DC: Child
Trends, 1999.
Vonnie C. McLoyd
Algea O. Harrison-Hale
AFTER-SCHOOL PROGRAMS
For a variety of social and economic reasons, after-
school programs are greatly needed for school-age
children. Approximately 28 million children have
parents who work outside the home, and most chil-
dren return to an empty home after school. Studies
indicate that parents find the need for these pro-
grams outweighs the current supply. Furthermore,
parents support after-school programs in order to
provide fun and enriching learning opportunities
and activities that are typically viewed as more valu-
able than watching television or playing computer
games.
After-school programs help children in several
ways. First, they can keep children safe and out of
trouble in a structured environment. Second, they can
improve academic performance. Third, after-school
programs can raise children’s social skills and self-
confidence. The goals of most after-school programs
generally include: reducing the numbers of latchkey
children, providing homework and school support,
providing cultural enrichment, providing physical
recreation, teaching self-care skills, and broadening
community support and ties to the schools.
See also: HOME SCHOOLING; LATCHKEY CHILDREN;
WORKING FAMILIES
Bibliography
Chung, A. After-School Programs: Keeping Children Safe and Smart.
Partnership for Family Involvement in Education, 2000.
Popwell, E. P. The After-School Program for School-Age Children. A De-
scriptive Report, vol. 13, no. 25, 1991.
David Peres
AGGRESSION
Aggression in humans remains a substantial social
problem. A number of theories have been constructed
to explain aggression, and much research has focused
on factors that affect aggressive behavior.
In the ethological approach, aggression is viewed
as an instinctual system built into the organism inde-
pendently of external stimuli. This aggression must
be released through an appropriate releasing stimu-
lus. The most influential instinctual theory is the con-
cept of thanatos proposed by Austrian neurologist
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). He theorized that two
instinctual drives, eros (love instinct) and thanatos
(death instinct), motivate human behavior. Thanatos
manifests itself as aggressive behavior in daily living.
The other main theory comes from social learn-
ing and focuses on environmental influences. Albert
Bandura focused on modeling processes that shape
aggressive behavior and direct feedback in the form
of reward and punishment. From social cognitive the-
orists comes the assumption that the social interpreta-
tion about which interpersonal behaviors constitute
aggressive provocational retaliation is crucial for de-
termining whether children will behave aggressively
or not.Definition
Aggression is defined as behavior aimed at caus-
ing harm or pain, psychological harm, or personal in-
jury or physical distraction. An important aspect of
aggressive behavior is the intention underlying the
actor’s behavior. Not all behaviors resulting in harm
are considered aggression. For example, a doctor
who makes an injection that harms people, but who
did so with the intent of preventing the further spread
of illness, is not considered to have committed an ag-
gressive act.
Aggression can be direct or indirect, active or pas-
sive, and physical or verbal. Using these categories,
human aggression can be grouped into eight classes
of behavior:- Punching the victim (direct, active, physical)
- Insulting the victim (direct, active, verbal)
- Performing a practical joke, setting a booby trap
(direct, passive, physical) - Spreading malicious gossip (direct, passive, ver-
bal) - Obstructing passage, participating in a sit-in
(indirect, active, physical) - Refusing to speak (indirect, active, verbal)
- Refusing to perform a necessary task (indirect,
passive, physical)
18 AFTER-SCHOOL PROGRAMS