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Elizabeth Lorch
Clarese Lemberger
TEMPER TANTRUMS
Temper tantrums are disruptive behaviors in the
form of angry outbursts that may be physical (hitting,
biting, pushing), verbal (crying, screaming, whining),
or persistent grouchiness and petulance. Tantrums
are common in young children; up to 80 percent of
two- and three-year-olds experience tantrums, and 20
percent have daily tantrums.
Tantrums consistent with normal toddler devel-
opment reflect a striving for emotional independence
and limited expressive language skills during frus-
trating events. Other contributing factors include the
child’s temperament. Intense, persistent children,
shy, fearful children, and those with frequent epi-
sodes of stranger anxiety are more likely to experi-
ence tantrums. A delay in language development,
hearing impairment, and disorders of the central ner-
vous system may limit coping strategies and lead to
tantrums.
A child’s environment modifies the frequency
and intensity of temper tantrums. Behavioral expec-
tations and responses to disruptive behaviors by par-
ents, teachers, and other caretakers have a strong
influence on tantrums. Intolerance for minor temper
outbursts, negative verbal or physical responses, in-
consistent responses, and a limited understanding of
normal development in young children affect the na-
ture of tantrums. Parent education and principles of
behavior modification applied to discipline form the
foundation for an effective parental response.
See also: DISCIPLINE; PARENTING
Bibliography
Stein, Martin T. ‘‘Difficult Behaviors: Temper Tantrums to Con-
duct Disorders.’’ In Abraham M. Rudolf ed., Rudolf’s Pediat-
rics, 20th edition. Stamford, CT: Appleton and Lange, 1996.
Martin T. Stein
TEMPERAMENT
The word ‘‘temperament’’ is used frequently in every-
day speech. People will refer to another person, or
even an object, as ‘‘temperamental.’’ To social scien-
tists, temperament is not a set of behaviors per se; it
is not an ability, such as thinking, or a set of actions,
such as playing. Instead, temperament is a behavioral
style. It is not what a person does, but how that person
does it. It is not that the boy cries, but that he cries
frequently. It is not that the girl walks, but that she
walks quickly.In 1987 a prominent cognitive psychologist, Rob-
ert McCall, created a definition of temperament that
included elements common to the four main theories
of temperament at the time. According to McCall,
temperament is defined as biologically based individ-
ual differences in reactions to the world; these reac-
tions are relatively stable across development.
Temperament is not personality but is one of the
bases of later personality differences. Personality
characteristics include traits and behaviors that are
acquired after infancy and some that are not influ-
enced by biological factors. Habits, goals, and self-
perceptions are aspects of people’s personalities, but
they are not temperament traits. Given the complexi-
ty of the definition, it may be helpful to discuss the
three elements common to all temperament charac-
teristics: (1) the individual differences are present at
birth, (2) the differences are inherent in the person,
and (3) the differences are stable across development.Three Common Elements of
Temperament CharacteristicsThe first factor common to all temperament char-
acteristics is that these individual differences are pres-
ent at birth. Sigmund Freud was the first psychologist
to discuss personality development. The purpose of
his theory, however, was to explain the common
human experience. Freud argued that all children
were born with biological drives (e.g., hunger, thirst)
that need to be satisfied in order to ensure personal
survival. Three mental structures (the id, the ego, and
the superego) emerge during childhood and struggle
with each other to create the individual’s personality.
According to Freud, personality differences are not
present at birth. Instead, these differences emerge
during childhood as each child resolves internal con-
flict in different ways and in different family contexts.
By adolescence, children have developed unique cop-
ing styles that are stable into adulthood. Tempera-
ment researchers, on the other hand, argue that
differences in reactions to the world are present at
birth. In addition, few believe that children are con-
stantly struggling to resolve internal conflict during
childhood. Children are born with unique behavioral
styles that influence their development from the
womb until death.408 TEMPER TANTRUMS