safe, amniocentesis can trigger cramping, leakage of
amniotic fluid, vaginal bleeding, and it may increase
the risk of miscarriage by about .5 to 1 percent.
See also: BIRTH; PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT;
ULTRASOUND
Bibliography
‘‘Amniocentesis: Indications for Amniocentesis.’’ Available from
http://www.stanford.edu/üholbrook/Amniocentesis.html; IN-
TERNET.
Epstein, R. H. ‘‘Great News about Prenatal Testing.’’ Parents 73,
no. 6 (2000).
Heller, L. ‘‘Genetic Testing.’’ Parents 70 (1995):96.
Williams, R. D. ‘‘Testing for Birth Defects.’’ FDA Consumer 33, no.
2 (2000):22.
Yvonne M. Caldera
ANDROGYNY
Historically, psychologists have viewed femininity
and masculinity as opposite poles of a continuum.
The more feminine a person was, the less masculine
that person could be. In the late 1990s, psychologists,
including Sandra Bem, have asserted that femininity
and masculinity are independent personality dimen-
sions. Individuals, female or male, who exhibit high
levels of both feminine and masculine personality
traits are said to demonstrate androgyny. People who
have many masculine but few feminine traits are
termed masculine; those with many feminine but few
masculine characteristics are feminine. People who
show few masculine and feminine traits are designat-
ed as undifferentiated. Numerous studies indicate
that androgynous persons are better adjusted psycho-
logically, more popular, and have higher self-esteem
than are masculine, feminine, or undifferentiated
persons. In other research, individuals high in mascu-
linity appear as well off as androgynous persons.
These results suggest that it is the masculine compo-
nent of androgyny (e.g., independence, confidence,
self-reliance) that is most strongly associated with psy-
chological well-being.
See also: GENDER-ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Bibliography
Bem, Sandra. ‘‘The Measurement of Psychological Androgyny.’’
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 42 (1974):155–162.
Claire Etaugh
ANGER
Anger is the experience of extreme displeasure. It is
a basic emotion that first appears when infants are
three to four months old. Anger among infants is
characterized by a facial expression involving eye-
brows that are lowered and drawn together, eyes that
are narrowed, and a mouth that is opened and angu-
lar. Angry infants also engage in an angry cry in which
excess air is forced through the vocal cords. Anger
during early infancy occurs when parents fail to meet
infants’ needs. Parents who are inconsistent in re-
sponding to infants foster feelings of infant anger.
Developmentalists tend to agree that parents should
quickly and consistently respond to infant cries, and
that an infant cannot be spoiled during the first year
of life. In fact, quick, consistent response to infant dis-
tress (regardless of whether the distress is due to a
physiological status or being unable to exert control
over an object or event) facilitates a secure parent-
infant attachment. Securely attached infants are more
likely to develop skillful emotional self-regulatory be-
havior because they have been taught that their nega-
tive emotions will be soothed (Cassidy and Berlin,
1994).
During the toddler period, anger arises from
frustration over children’s unsuccessful attempts to
control objects or events. Emotional regulation first
begins in toddlerhood and involves the suppression
or appropriate expression of anger. There are three
ways that parents can influence children’s develop-
ment of emotional anger regulation. First, parents
cause frustration by barring children’s control over
objects or events, which leads to children’s feelings
and expression of anger. Second, parents model ex-
pressions of anger and its management. Third, par-
ents directly instruct children in how to recognize
when and why they feel angry and offer ways to cope
with anger. Effective regulation of anger, or anger
management, is related to children’s positive rela-
tionships with peers throughout childhood and ado-
lescence. Ineffective regulation of anger may result in
poor peer relationships, behavior problems, bullying,
and deviancy throughout childhood and adolescence.
Children who are ineffective at regulating anger may
benefit from training in anger management.See also: ACTING OUT; EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENTBibliography
Cassidy, Jude, and Lisa Berline. ‘‘The Insecure/Ambivalent Pattern
of Attachment: Theory and Research.’’ Child Development 65,
no. 4 (1994):971–991.
DeBaryshe, Barbara, and Dale Fryxell. ‘‘A Developmental Perspec-
tive on Anger: Family and Peer Contexts.’’ Psychology in the
Schools 35, no. 3 (1998):205–216.
Izzard, Carroll, Christina Fantauzzo, Janine Castle, et al. ‘‘The On-
togeny and Significance of Infants’ Facial Expressions in the
First Nine Months of Life.’’ Developmental Psychology 31, no. 6
(1995):997–1013.
Zeman, Janice, and Kimberly Shipman. ‘‘Social-Contextual Influ-
ences on Expectancies for Managing Anger and Sadness: The24 ANDROGYNY