Transition from Middle Childhood to Adolescence.’’ Develop-
mental Psychology 33, no. 6 (1997):917–924.
Mary Elizabeth Curtner-SmithANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Antisocial behavior in children is associated with so-
cial impairment and psychological dysfunction, such
as oppositional/defiant disorders, conduct disorders,
and antisocial personality disorders. These disorders
often involve engaging in delinquent behavior, but
they are far from synonymous with criminal activity.
In preschoolers, antisocial behavior can include tem-
per tantrums, quarreling with peers, and physical ag-
gression (i.e., hitting, kicking, biting). Parents often
report difficulties in handling and controlling the
child. Comorbidity (visible problems that may not be
the child’s only problem) is often found because anti-
social behavior is associated with hyperactivity, de-
pression, and reading difficulties. Follow-up studies
indicate that antisocial behavior in toddlers often de-
creases with age, as children learn to control their
behavior or benefit from the intervention of profes-
sionals in the field. Individual differences dictate the
tendency of children to engage in antisocial behavior,
and this tendency may change over time according to
the overall level of antisocial behavior, situational
variations, and the persistence or nonpersistence of
antisocial behavior as individuals grow older.
See also: ACTING OUT
Bibliography
McCord, Joan, and Richard Tremblay, eds. Preventing Antisocial Be-
havior: Interventions from Birth through Adolescence. New York:
Guilford Press, 1992.
Moffitt, T. E. ‘‘Adolescence-Limited and Life-Course-Persistent
Antisocial Behaviour: A Developmental Taxonomy.’’ Psycho-
logical Review 100, no. 4 (1993):674–701.
Rutter, Michael, Henri Giller, and Ann Hagell. Antisocial Behaviour
by Young People. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University
Press, 1998.
Tremblay, Richard. ‘‘The Development of Aggressive Behaviour
during Childhood: What Have We Learned in the Past
Century?’’ International Journal of Behavioral Development 24
(2000):129–141.
Anne I. H. Borge
APGAR, VIRGINIA (1909–1974)
Virginia Apgar, inventor of the APGAR Score for
newborn infants, was born in Westfield, New Jersey,
on June 7, 1909. Having witnessed her brothers’
chronic and deadly childhood illnesses, Apgar chose
a career in medicine, like her father before her. She
graduated from Mount Holyoke College in 1929 after
Virginia Apgar invented the APGAR Score, a method for assessing
newborn infant stability based on five key observation points:
Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration.
(Bettmann/Corbis)studying zoology, chemistry, and physiology. She
then entered the College of Physicians and Surgeons
at Columbia University, earning her medical degree
in 1933. After graduation, Apgar accepted a prized
surgical internship at Columbia University, during
which she studied under Alan Whipple, the chairman
of surgery. Whipple encouraged Apgar to study anes-
thesiology instead of surgery. In 1937 Apgar became
the first female board-certified anesthesiologist in the
United States, and in 1949 she was the first woman
appointed as full professor of anesthesiology at Co-
lumbia University.
Later in 1949, Apgar’s professional focus shifted
to the field of obstetrical anesthesia. During this time,
Apgar overheard her colleagues discussing their con-
cerns regarding the difficulty of assessing whether a
newborn baby was stable after delivery, and she im-
mediately wrote down the five points now known as
the APGAR Score. The APGAR Score consists of five
observation points that are evaluated by healthcare
personnel at one, five, and ten minutes following
birth: Activity, Pulse, Grimace (reflex response), Ap-
pearance (muscle tone and movement), and Respira-
tion. The APGAR Score was published in 1953 and isAPGAR, VIRGINIA 25