have shown that families of children with birth defects
may experience more distress, as measured by higher
levels of mental health treatment, than families of
children without birth defects. These families, howev-
er, are no more prone to divorce, social isolation, or
alcohol problems than families without a child affect-
ed by a birth defect.
There are a growing number of web-based re-
sources for information about birth defects. The
March of Dimes and the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention provide information and links to
other web sites for information about specific condi-
tions. Additionally, there are state and national birth
defect monitoring programs. The purpose of these
projects is to conduct surveillance about birth defects
to target information dissemination, track changes in
prevalence, and identify trends. This information
stimulates research about prevention and affects pro-
gram development. Several states use information
from their birth defects registries to refer infants and
their families to appropriate services.
See also: TERATOGENS
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Anita Farel
Robert Meyer
Maggie HickenBIRTH ORDER AND SPACING
Birth order is defined as the science or method of un-
derstanding the dynamics of an individual’s place in
the family. A large amount of research has been con-
ducted on birth order, also known as ordinal birth po-
sition. Birth order has fascinated parents, physicians,
and others for over one hundred years, in part be-
cause everyone is a participant. Everyone is born into
a family and thus are affected, one way or another, by
birth order position. In fact, the dynamics and per-
suasive influences brought on by birth order between
family members are often unmistakable.Effects of Birth Order Discovered
Alfred Adler, one of the first psychologists to ex-
amine birth order, used the term ‘‘family constella-
tion’’ to help explain some of the personality
differences that tend to develop within families. This
research into family dynamics evolved from the study
of genetics. Scientists found that the influence of ge-
netics alone did not explain the extreme differences
in children from the same family.
Although Adler frequently is mentioned as one of
the fathers of birth order research, much of what he
hypothesized has been refuted. For example, Adler
claimed that second-born children were the highest
achievers because of their relatively relaxed style.
After numerous subsequent studies on birth order,
however, it is now generally accepted that firstborns
typically achieve the most and are often more intelli-
gent than other siblings. Interestingly, of the first
twenty-three American astronauts sent into outer
space, twenty-one were firstborns and the other two
were only children.
Since Adler, social scientists have spent a consid-
erable amount of time asking the basic question of
whether birth order makes any difference in how we
develop as individuals. Generally, the answer is yes.
A person’s birth order position in the family has been
linked to differences in achievement, intelligence, at-58 BIRTH ORDER AND SPACING