46 Agricultural Harm to the Environment
off the fields. Nor did they stop the emergence livestock feedlots with their massive production of
animal wastes.
23 On the effects of changes in the German landscape on flooding, see van der Ploeg et al, 1999,
- Vo-Tong Xuan, Rector of Angiang University in Vietnam notes similar problems in the
Mekong Delta, where farmers have switched from one crop of floating rice per year to three short
duration crops of modern varieties, which has led to an occurrence of floods on an annual basis.
24 On the effects of landscape, in particular paddy rice, on water control in Japan, see Minami et al,
1998; Kato et al, 1997; OECD, 2000.
25 On the externalities of Chinese agriculture, see Cai et al, 1999; Norse et al, 2000.
26 FAO, 2000.
27 On the values of wetlands, see Heimlich et al, 1998. For a study of eutrophication costs, see Pretty
et al, 2001a, A Preliminary Assessment of the Environmental Damage Costs of Eutrophication of Fresh
Waters in England and Wales. See also Postel and Carpenter, 1997 Ewel, 1997. For a study showing
that the costs of creating wetlands is less than for constructing treatment plants, see Gren, 1995.
28 See Keeny and Muller, 2000.
29 We distinguished between value-loss costs arising from the reduced value of clean or non-eutrophic
(nutrient-enriched) water, and the direct costs incurred in responding to eutrophication plus the
costs of changing behaviour and practices to meet legal obligations. Value-loss costs, by definition,
represent a loss of existing value, rather than an increase in costs, and are divided into two categories:
use values and non-use values. Use values are associated with private benefits gained from actual use
(or consumption) of ecosystem services, and can include private sector uses (e.g. agriculture, indus-
try), recreation benefits (e.g. fishing, water sports, bird watching), education benefits, and general
amenity benefits. Non-use values are of three types: option values, bequest values and existence
values. See Pretty et al, 2001; also Mason, 1996; Environment Agency, 1998.
30 Total fertilizer consumption (N, P and K) for the world was 138 million tonnes in the year 2000,
comprising 83mt of nitrogen, 32mt of phosphate, and 22mt of potassium. Nitrogen consump-
tion in western Europe was 17mt, in North America 21mt, in South Asia 21mt, in the Russian
states 38mt and in China 38mt. World consumption of all fertilizer has grown from 30mt in
1960 (when nitrogen consumption was 11mt, phosphate 11mt and potassium 8mt). Data from
the International Fertilizer Industry Association, Paris.
31 WHO, 1998, Obesity. Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic. Also see Oster et al, 1999.
32 See WHO, 2001.
33 For details of foodborne illnesses, see CDC, 2001; Kaeferstein et al, 1997; Mead et al, 1999. For
USDA data on microbial infections in farm animals, see USDA, at http://www.usda.fsis.usda.gov. For
costs of antibiotic resistance, see National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, at www3.
niaid.nih.gov. For Centers for Disease Control, see CDC, at http://www.cdc.gov.
34 See Buzby and Robert, 1997; WHO, 2001.
35 For more on antibiotics and the emergence of resistance, see Harrison and Lederberg, 1998; Wise
et al, 1998; House of Lords, 1999.
36 See Havelaar et al, 2000; WHO, 2001; FAO, 2001.
37 See Willis et al, 1993; Foster et al, 1997; Stewart et al, 1997; Hanley et al, 1998.
38 See Cobb et al, 1998.
39 Data is from the Countryside Agency and English Tourism Council surveys – 1968 million day
and tourist-days were spent in the UK in 1998, of which 433 million were to the countryside, 118
million to the seaside and 1299 million to towns.
40 IATP, 1998.
41 Watershed Agricultural Council. Catskill/Delaware Watershed Complex, at iatp.org/watersheds.
42 Pretty and Ball, 2001
43 See Pretty and Ball, 2001; Swingland et al, 2002
44 Growing empirical evidence on the costs of compliance with environmental regulations and taxes
suggest that there has been little or no impact on the overall competitiveness of businesses or