Ecological Basis for Low-Toxicity Integrated Pest Management 179
producing vegetables for urban markets, so driving competition to lower input costs
as well. Highly variable farm-gate prices for vegetables make farmers’ economic deci-
sions to invest in pesticide applications a highly risky business. Research on vegeta-
bles is beginning to catch up with rice allowing for better management of pests
through prevention and biological controls. IPM programmes in both crops aim to
reduce the use of toxic pesticide inputs and the average toxicity of pest management
products that are still needed whilst improving profitability of production.
Integrated Pest Management in Rice
This chapter has been prepared to provide a conceptual guide to the recent devel-
opments in rice Integrated Pest Management (IPM) within an ecological frame-
work. It is not a ‘how to’ guide but rather a ‘why to’ guide for IPM programmes
that are based on ecological processes and work towards environmentally friendly
and profitable production. We provide a broad overview of IPM practices in rice
cultivation including its ecological basis, decision making methods, means of dis-
semination to farmers and future needs to improve these practices. The breadth of
pest problems, including interaction with soil fertility and varietal management
are discussed in depth. Although the main focus is on Asian rice cultivation, we
also provide examples of rice IPM being applied in other regions.
IPM in rice has been developing in many countries since the early 1960s. How-
ever, much of the development was based on older concepts of IPM including inten-
sive scouting and economic thresholds that are not applicable under all conditions
(Morse and Buhler, 1997) or for all pests (e.g. diseases, weeds), especially on small-
holder farms where the bulk of the world’s rice is grown and which are often under a
weak or non-existing market economy. During the 1980s and 1990s, important eco-
logical information became available on insect populations that allowed the develop-
ment of a more comprehensive ecological approach to pest management, as well as
greater integration of management practices that went beyond simple scouting and
economic threshold levels (Kenmore et al, 1984; Gallagher, 1988; Ooi, 1988; Graf et
al, 1992; Barrion and Litsinger, 1994; Rubia et al, 1996; Settle et al, 1996).
Since then, an ecological and economic analytical approach has been taken for
management to consider crop development, weather, various pests and their natu-
ral enemies. These principles were first articulated in the Indonesian National IPM
Programme, but have expanded as IPM programmes have evolved and improved.
Currently programmes in Africa and Latin America now use the term Integrated
Production and Pest Management (IPPM), and follow these principles: grow a
healthy soil and crop; conserve natural enemies; observe fields regularly (soil, water,
plant, pests, natural enemies); and farmers should strive to become experts. Within
these principles, economic decision making is still the core of rice IPM but incor-
porates good farming practices as well as active pest problem solving within a
production context.