A History of the World From the 20th to the 21st Century

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more readily available to accelerate the regimes’ plans to catch up with the West industrially. These, too, failed. The heaviest ...

the Eastern European nations that uphold ‘social- ist internationalism’. That sounded like a softer version of the Brezhnev Doct ...

army obeyed him. There was some sullen relief, but protest strikes also broke out, harshly sup- pressed at the cost of a number ...

In December 1990, the bewildered Poles came to elect their new president, Jaruzelski’s term hav- ing been shortened. A hitherto ...

Krzaklewski, into the Solidarity Electoral Action (AWS) and emerged from the elections of September 1997 as the single biggest p ...

presidential election were used to discredit Mazowiecki (he was ‘smeared’ as being of Jewish descent, though he was not), so the ...

remained obedient to Ceausˇescu’s dictatorship. But the Czech communist leadership felt ill at ease and began to make a number o ...

Gheorghiu-Dej succeeded in persuading the Kremlin to withdraw the Red Army from Roman- ian soil in 1958, and thereafter his coun ...

and Romanian television interrupted its broad- cast. It was the signal people had been waiting for: in the afternoon and evening ...

Fund, made a painful start on the road to a market economy. For most of the post-war years, from 1954 to 1989, Todor Zhivkov led ...

Yugoslavia that exceeded anything witnessed else- where, including the Soviet Union. The Western powers and the United Nations s ...

the struggle between a revived Croatian national- ism and Serbia. Serbia sought to dominate the other republics; Croatian nation ...

showed that summer how best to deal with them. Honecker even despatched his protégé, Egon Krenz, to Beijing to congratulate the ...

1989, he put forward a plan for a ‘confederation’ of the two Germanies. This was not well received in Moscow, nor was it much we ...

In the West, the 1980s was a decade of economic problems apparently overcome and one of rising prosperity during the good years. ...

Terrorism is also closely linked to the conflicts of the Middle East. It is a phenomenon that is not amenable to diplomacy and r ...

the Greek Orthodox), ‘national’ meant perpetua- tion of Christian and right-wing predominance in an independent pro-Western Leba ...

cessor, President Anwar Sadat, was ready to move further, in order to regain the Sinai, lost in 1967. During 1977, an election y ...

amazed, but he recovered quickly and the next day invited Sadat to Jerusalem. The Arab world con- demned the visit. It was unpre ...