Glossary 299Direct object. The default kind of object of a verb (not an indirect object). In a
canonical clause, a single object is always a direct object: Jill paid the bill. In
canonical clauses with two objects, the first is indirect, the second direct: He
gave me the key (me is indirect object).
Directive. Cover term for requests, commands, orders, instructions and similar
speech acts aimed at getting the addressee(s) to do something.
Ditransitive. Clause with two objects (/ lent her my bike) or verb of such a clause
(lend).
Dummy. A meaningless word required in some construction to satisfy a syntactic
requirement; e.g. do in Does she know him ?, where the construction requires an
auxiliary verb.
Epistemic modality. Meaning relating to what's necessary or possible given our
beliefs: must in Yo u must be exhausted expresses epistemic necessity; may in Yo u
may be right expresses epistemic possibility.
Exclamative clause. A clause type characteristically used, in main clauses, to
make an exclamatory statement: What a mess they made!; How stupid I was!
Existential clause. A clause which prototypically has the dummy pronoun there as
subject and a complement corresponding to the subject of a more basic construc
tion: There was a key on the table. Here a key corresponds to the subject of the
more basic A key was on the table.
Expanded coordinate. Coordinate prototypically beginning with a coordinator.
External. Located outside the VP or the nominal: (She [lost her key]); (this big {l
hole).
Extraposed object. A postverbal element, normally a subordinate clause, in a
clause with dummy it as object: I consider it a scandal that we weren 't paid.
Extraposed subject. A postverbal element, normally a subordinate clause, in a
clause with dummy it as subject: It is fo rtunate that you could come.
Extraposition. A clause construction which prototypically has dummy it as subject
and a postverbal subordinate clause: It isfortunate that you could come.
Finite clause. Clause that is either headed by a primary verb-form (Ed is careful)
or is imperative (Be careful) or is subjunctive (/ insist that he be careful). Main
clauses are always finite, subordinate clauses may be finite or non-finite.
Fossilised. Of a word combination, lacking the syntactic variation that would be
expected. Come across (= "find by chance") is fossilised in that the preposition
must immediately follow the verb: the letters which I came across, not *the
letters across which I came.
Fronted preposition. Preposition placed along with its complement at the front of
the clause: [To whom] are you referring?
Fused relative construction. NP in which the relative word (what and whoever)
functions simultaneously as head of the NP and as an element within a modify
ing relative clause, as in What you say is true or Whoever told you that is
mistaken.
Fused-head construction. An NP where the head is fused with a dependent ele
ment, usually a determiner or internal modifier. In We have three eggs but