Psychology: A Self-Teaching Guide

Two additional characteristics of the preoperational stage are anthropomor-

phic thinking and egocentrism. Anthropomorphic thinkingis characterized

by a tendency to explain natural events in terms of human behavior. Conse-

quently, leaves turn various colors in the fall because Jack Frost paints them. The

huffing and puffing of an invisible giant is the cause of a windy day.

Egocentrismis a tendency to perceive oneself as existing at the center of the

universe. Everything revolves around the self. Consequently, five-year-old

Danielle, when riding in a car at night with her parents, asks, “Why is the Moon

following us?” Two days later Danielle falls and scrapes her knee. She believes that

her mother can feel the pain. Six-year-old Edward thinks that people in a foreign

country on the other side of the world are upside down. He reasons that if the

world is round, and we’re right side up, then they have to be upside down. If an

adult tells Edward that the people are right side up, he will be confused.

(a) The term preoperationalis used to suggest that during this stage the child has not yet

grasped the concept of and.

(b) What kind of thinking is characterized by a tendency to explain natural events in terms
of human behavior?

(c) is a tendency to perceive oneself as existing at the center of the

universe.

Answers: (a) cause; effect; (b) Anthropomorphic thinking; (c) Egocentrism.

The concrete operations stageis associated with middle childhood (seven

to twelve years old). The child at this stage can think in terms of cause and effect.

However, most of the thinking is “concrete,” meaning that cognitive processes at

this stage deal well with what can be seen or otherwise experienced, not with

abstractions. For example, eight-year-old Jack can easily understand that 3 + 7 =

10 because, if necessary, this can be demonstrated with physical objects such as

pennies or chips. On the other hand, Jack can’t grasp that x + 8 =11 in problem

1, and that x + 8 =24 in problem 2. If Jack is told that x is a variable, and that it

can have more than one numerical value in different problems, he will have a hard

time appreciating this fact. In brief, Jack can understand arithmetic, but he can’t

understand algebra.

During the stage of concrete operations, children are usually interested in how

clocks work, how measurements are made, and why this causes that to happen.

They often like to assemble things. A game such as Monopoly, with its play

money, property deeds, and tokens, is attractive.

The formal operations stage is associated with adolescence and adult-

hood. (Adolescence begins at twelve or thirteen years old). The formal opera-

tions stage is characterized by the ability to think in abstract terms. The

adolescent and adult can understand algebra. Subjects such as philosophy, with its

Developmental Psychology: How Children Become Adults 165