78 PSYCHOLOGY
Skinner, long associated with Harvard, invented a device called the operant
conditioning apparatus;its informal name is the Skinner box.Think of the
apparatus as something like a candy machine for animals such as rats and
pigeons. A rat, for example, learns that it can obtain a pellet of food when it
presses a lever. If the pellet appears each time the lever is pressed, the rate of
lever pressing will increase. Lever pressing is operant behavior (or simply an oper-
ant.) The pellet is a reinforcer. A reinforceris a stimulus that has the effect of
increasing the frequency of a given category of behavior (in this case, lever
pressing).(a) Operant behavior is characterized by actions that have.(b) The formal term for a Skinner box is the.
Answers: (a) consequences; (b) operant conditioning apparatus.The concept of reinforcement plays a big part in Skinner’s way of looking at
behavior. Consequently, it is important to expand on the concept. Note in the
above definition that a reinforcer is understood in terms of its actual effects.It is to
be distinguished from a reward. A rewardis perceived as valuable to the individ-
ual giving the reward, but it may not be valued by the receiving organism. In the
case of a reinforcer, it is a reinforcer onlyif it has some sort of payoff value to the
receiving organism. By definition, a reinforcer has an impact on operant behavior.
Its function is always to increasethe frequency of a class of operant behaviors.
One important way to categorize reinforcers is to refer to them as positive and
negative. A positive reinforcerhas value for the organism. Food when you are
hungry, water when you are thirsty, and money when you’re strapped for cash all
provide examples of positive reinforcers.(a) The function of a reinforcer is always to the frequency of a class of oper-
ant behaviors.(b) A has value for the organism.
Answers: (a) increase; (b) positive reinforcer.A negative reinforcerhas no value for the organism. It does injury or is nox-
ious in some way. A hot room, an offensive person, and a dangerous situation all
provide examples of negative reinforcers. The organism tends to either escape
from or avoid such reinforcers. The operant behavior takes the subject awayfrom
the reinforcer. Turning on the air conditioner when a room is hot provides an
example of operant behavior designed to escape from a negative reinforcer. Note
that the effect of the negative reinforcer on behavior is still to increasethe fre-
quency of a class of operants. You are more likely to turn on an air conditioner
tomorrow if you have obtained relief by doing so today.