qUran, the sharia, and Sufi dervishes—that draw
upon Islamic tradition.
The stories are anonymous, and modern
scholars agree that they come from different
sources, not all of which are “Arabian.” Though
the stories are written in Arabic and a number
of them refer to baghdad and cairo, many of
them show strong Indian and Persian influences.
Scholars also agree that the Arabian Nights cir-
culated in several versions of different lengths
during much of its history. The version that first
captured the attention of Western readers was
based on Arabic manuscripts from syria trans-
lated by a French traveler-scholar, Antoine Gal-
land (1646–1715), in collaboration with an Arab
Christian named Hanna Diab. Indeed, some of
the most beloved stories we now associate with
the Arabian Nights, such as those about Sinbad,
Aladdin, and Ali Baba, circulated as separate sto-
ries and were not part of the original 14th-cen-
tury collection. They were added to the Arabian
Nights only as a result of Galland and Hanna’s
collaboration early in the 18th century. Printed
translations and adaptations of the Arabian
Nights quickly became best sellers in Europe
and continue to fascinate readers young and
old around the world today. Moreover, Arabian
Nights has inspired modern composers, poets,
playwrights, and filmmakers both in the West
and the Middle East. However, it has also con-
tributed to the formation of exotic stereotypes
about Arabs and Muslims that inhibit cross-
cultural communication and understanding, as
exemplified in the controversy surrounding the
animated Disney feature Aladdin (1992).
See also arabic langUage and literatUre;
Folklore; orientalism.
Further reading: Richard F. Burton, trans., The Ara-
bian Nights. Edited by Jack Zipes (New York: Penguin
Books, 2001; Husain Haddawy, trans., The Arabian
Nights (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990); Robert Irwin,
The Arabian Nights: A Companion (London: Penguin
Books, 1995).
Arabian religions, pre-Islamic
Before the historical appearance of islam in the
seventh century, there were a variety of religions
practiced by the peoples of the Arabian Peninsula
and its borderlands in southern syria and southern
iraq. Though the evidence is meager, it appears
that in addition to ancient native Arabian religions,
there were also three religious traditions that had
come into the region from neighboring territories:
Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism. By the
middle of the eighth century, Islam had become
the dominant religion, and the institutions, prac-
tices, and beliefs of the former religions had either
been displaced or absorbed by Islamic ones.
Native Arabian religions focused partly on
temple cults located in cities and towns, includ-
ing mecca, the site of the kaaba, where as many
as 360 gods and goddesses may have been wor-
shipped. The temples were ceremonial centers
that housed sacred images, which were cared for
by ritual experts who conducted animal sacrifices
and transmitted other offerings on behalf of the
lay people. Some of these temples attracted pil-
grims who came from surrounding regions and
had to follow special ritual rules, not unlike those
observed during the annual haJJ. Several of the
Arabian deities worshipped were associated with
the Sun, moon, planets, and stars. The main dei-
ties in Mecca at the time of Islam’s appearance
were Hubal (a god of divination), allah and al-
Lat (a high god and his wife), al-Uzza (a powerful
goddess, perhaps Venus), and Manat (a goddess of
destiny and another form of Venus). Certain rocks,
trees, and springs of water were also believed to be
inhabited by spiritual beings, known as Jinn. With
the exception of Allah only, the qUran attacked
worship of such deities and spirits, and such prac-
tices were later formally banned by Islamic law as
unbelief (kufr) and idolatry (shirk)
The Quran contains evidence of the presence
of Jewish, Christian, and Zoroastrian religions in
the Arabian Peninsula during mUhammad’s lifetime
(570?–632). Judaism came into Arabia before the
first century c.e. but became especially evidentK 52 Arabian religions, pre-Islamic