apply both to secular and religious social institu-
tions, and they help us to understand the complex
networks of authority that have formed in the
history of islam and that are evident in Islamicate
societies today.
Sacred authority in Islam begins with God,
the qUran (God’s word), and mUhammad (the
conveyer of God’s word). The Quran declares
that God is lord of all creation (Q 1:2) and that
he holds sovereignty over the heavens and the
earth (Q 5:40). Humans, therefore, are destined
to be his “servants” or “worshippers.” Indeed,
the human acknowledgment of God’s authority
is expressed in Islam’s Five pillars, which are
collectively called ibadat, “duties of worship/ser-
vitude.” The Quran alludes to its own authority as
a sacred scripture when it states “That is the book
in which there is no doubt, a guidance for the
God-fearing” (Q 2:2). As the “command” (amr)
revealed by the “lord of the worlds” (Q 56:80), the
Quran is connected with the qualities of divine
sovereignty, such as nobility (Q 56:77), glory (Q
50:1), might (Q 15:87), and wisdom (Q 36:2). In
theology, the Quran is regarded as God’s speech
and is one of his eternal attributes. Muslims turn
to it for guidance with respect to matters of belief
and religious practice, and it is the first of the
four roots of religious law (fiqh). Among humans,
God’s authority (sUlta n) is entrusted above all
to his prophets and messengers, the recipients
and transmitters of God’s word (Q 11:96) whom
people must obey (Q 4:64). It is Muhammad in
particular who is to be followed, for the Quran
declares, “Whoever obeys the messenger obeys
God” (Q 4:80). His authority is based on his per-
sonal charisma, but it also involves the authority
of a sacred tradition of prophets that reaches back
to Adam, the first human being, and the creation.
Aside from the Quran itself, Muhammad’s author-
ity in the early Muslim community is reflected in
a separate document known as the Constitution
of medina, which stipulates that if the early com-
munity is ever in disagreement, it should refer the
matter to God and to Muhammad. The long-term
importance of Muhammad as an authority for the
Muslim community was assured with the collec-
tion of hadiths about his sayings and actions and
the establishment of Muhammad’s sUnna (rules
for belief, worship, and moral conduct) as a
basis for law in the ninth century. Inheritance of
Muhammad’s personal charisma was to become
an important aspect of Muslim rulers’ author-
ity, as it was for the Abbasids, the Fatimids, and
the contemporary monarchies of morocco and
Jordan. Among the various divisions of the Shia,
descent from Muhammad through Ali and Fatima
is a necessary qualification of the divinely guided
Imams, people the Shia have regarded as the ideal
rulers and religious figures for Muslims.
With the passage of time and the rise of Islamic
empires, the networks of authority became more
complex. The Quran acknowledges this complex-
ity when it states, “obey God, the messenger, and
those in authority (amr) among you” (Q 4:59).
Though Muhammad’s successors, the caliphs,
first saw themselves mainly as tribal chieftains,
after the rise of the Islamic empire they claimed
primary authority in both spiritual and worldly
affairs. This can be seen in the formal titles they
took: “God’s deputy” (khalifat Allah), rather than
“deputy/successor of God’s messenger” (khalifat
rasul Allah), or even “commander (amir) of the
faithful” and “God’s authority (sultan) on earth.”
Several of the early Abbasid caliphs (eighth to
ninth centuries) attempted to claim the exclusive
right to decide matters of religious doctrine. By
the 10th century, in the face of growing challenges
to their authority in religious matters, rulers had
negotiated a division of legitimate power with the
Ulama, the experts in Islamic law and tradition.
Caliphs, sultans, and kings exercised authority in
worldly affairs, while the ulama claimed mastery
in the realm of religion. The actual division of
labor between the rulers and ulama was rarely
so clear, however, for the rulers were expected to
uphold and enforce sharia as well as patronize the
ulama. On the other hand, the ulama, in addition
to interpreting the sharia, could exercise moralauthority 73 J