of mUhammad. In early Islam, the naming cer-
emony was connected with a ritual called tahnik,
which involved rubbing the infant’s palate with a
date. This practice was based on the example of
Muhammad, who gave the first child born to the
Muslim community a date that he had chewed and
mixed with his saliva. Another practice is whisper-
ing the call to prayer (adhan) into the newborn’s
right ear and the second call to prayer, (iqama, or
the shahada) in its left ear. Islamic law exempts the
mother of the newborn from fulfilling daily prayers
and fasting while nursing and experiencing post-
partum bleeding, but before she can resume her
daily acts of worship, she is required to perform a
complete bodily ablUtion to purify herself.
Muslim authorities also approve of the prac-
tice of male circUmcision, considered to be a
rite of purification and a symbol of membership
in the Muslim community. It does not have the
theological significance it is given in Judaism, in
which it symbolizes the covenant between God
and the people of israel. In Islam, circumcision
was a greatly celebrated rite of passage that usu-
ally occurred when a boy was seven, 10, or 13. For
most Muslim boys today, however, it is done at
birth in a clinic or hospital. Female circumcision
(excision of the clitoris) is a controversial practice
that does not receive the endorsement of all reli-
gious authorities and is not widely performed.
There are many ritual practices related to
childbirth that are not endorsed by the sharia and
that ulama regard as harmful innovations (bidaa).
In many cultures, the mother observes taboos, or
ritual avoidances, for 40 days after birth, while
the midwife and the mother’s female relatives and
friends assist her in performing rites to appease
or repel evil spirits and to ensure the mother’s
continued fertility. In Upper egypt and Nubia, the
placenta, or afterbirth, may be taken to the Nile as
an offering to the river spirits. In palestine, it was
customarily buried to keep domestic animals from
eating it and to ensure the well-being of the infant.
In many Muslim cultures, the umbilical cord may
be placed in a cloth bag to be worn around the
neck of the child as a kind of amulet, or it may
be buried in the house. Of course, many such
practices have been forgotten with modernization
and the impact of Islamic reform movements.
Nonetheless, some traditional practices prevail.
Today many parents still decorate the infant’s body
or clothing with colorful beads or small pieces of
jewelry to deflect the evil eye.
Lastly, mention should be made of birthday
celebrations. Until recently, they were held only
for prophets and saints. However, a holy person’s
birthday (mawlid) is usually interpreted to be
the anniversary of his or her death, when they
go to the invisible world, rather than birth in
the material world. Ordinary Muslims living in
modernized societies now emulate Europeans and
Americans by celebrating birthday anniversaries
with cards, gifts, and sweets.
See also children.Further reading: Winifred S. Blackman, The Fellahin of
Upper Egypt (1927. Reprint, Cairo: American University
in Cairo Press, 2000), 64–89; Jonah Blank, Mullahs on the
Mainframe: Islam and Modernity among the Daudi Bohras
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001): 54–60;
Avner Giladi, “On Tahnik—An Early Islamic Childhood
Rite,” Children of Islam: Concepts of Childhood in Medi-
eval Muslim Society (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992):
35–41; Hilma Granqvist, Birth and Childhood among
the Arabs (Helsingfors: Söderström, 1947); Jafar Sharif,
Islam in India, or the Qanun-i Islam: The Customs of the
Musalmans of India, trans. G. A. Herklots (1921. Reprint,
Delhi: Low Price Publications, 1997): 21–40.Biruni, Abu Rayhan, al- (ca. 973–
1051) Persian scholar famous for his books on
Indian religion and civilization, history, mathematics,
astronomy, pharmacology, and medicine
Al-Biruni was born near the city of Khwarazm
(modern Khiva in Uzbekistan) and gained his
early edUcation from scholars in this region of
Central Asia. When the Turkish ruler Mahmoud
of Ghazna (r. 998–1030) conquered KhwarazmK 106 Biruni, Abu Rayhan, al-