ally included under it. The use of the designation
Bumiputra was part of an effort to form a new
national Malaysian identity in the wake of inde-
pendence from British colonial rule in 1957. Also,
this usage seems to have been influenced by the
Islamic resurgence in the country. For a Malay to
convert from islam to another religion not only
entails being accused of apostasy, it also means
giving up one’s national identity. According to the
1957 Malaysian Federal Constitution, a Malay
(Bumiputra) is defined as a follower of Islam who
“habitually speaks the Malay language” and “con-
forms to Malay custom.” Malay Muslims, there-
fore, not only stand apart from the Hindu and
Chinese Buddhist immigrant communities, they
are also distinct from immigrant Muslims.
In the 1970s, laws were passed to give Malay
Bumiputras special advantages. The king of the
country, for example, was charged with safeguard-
ing their privileges with regard to edUcation and
employment. The result has been discriminatory
(some say racist) government policies that give
Malays more access to subsidized housing, state
universities, and government-contracted projects.
In a practice known as Ali Baba, a non-Bumipu-
tra company (Baba) must join in a partnership
with one owned by a Bumiputra (Ali) in order to
receive government business. Since 2000, under
pressure from non-Bumiputra groups, the govern-
ment has taken steps to allow for a more egalitar-
ian treatment of members of these groups.
See also reneWal and reForm movements.
Further reading: Janet A. Nagata, The Reflowering of
Asian Islam: Modern Religious Radicals and Their Roots
(Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press,
1984); William Roff, The Origins of Malay Nationalism
(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1967).
Buraq, al-
Al-Buraq (an Arabic name possibly meaning “light-
ning”) is the fabled animal ridden by the prophets
that is most famous for having carried mUhammad
from mecca to JerUsalem and then up through
the seven heavens during his night JoUrney and
ascent. According to Islamic tradition, it was
brought to him by gabriel already saddled and
bridled. In appearance, it was a winged white steed,
smaller than a mule, with long ears. It reportedly
flew through the air like the wind. Starting in the
14th century, al-Buraq was depicted in manuscript
illustrations with a woman’s head and a crown. This
is the way it continues to be depicted, sometimes
even with the tail of a peacock, in Egyptian pilgrim-
age murals, Islamic religious posters, and colorful
painted trucks that ply the roads of aFghanistan,
pakistan, and india. Al-Buraq is also the popular
name Palestinians have given the Western Wall in
JerUsalem, where it is believed Muhammad tethered
the animal when he prayed at the aqsa mosqUe.
There is even said to have been a small mosqUe
dedicated to al-Buraq in that spot. More recently, the
name has been adopted by modern cargo airlines
and internet companies because of the animal’s
association with speedy movement through the air.
See also animals; Folklore; horse.Further reading: Juan Eduardo Campo, The Other Sides
of Paradise: Explorations into the Religious Meanings of
Domestic Space in Islam (Columbia: University of South
Carolina Press, 1991); Arthur Jeffery, Reader on Islam
(The Hague: Mouton & Company, 1962).Al-Buraq, the legendary mount of the prophets (printed
poster)K 118 Buraq, al-