nected by trade routes that spanned mountains,
deserts, river lands, and sometimes seas, forming
complex spatial hierarchies, organized vertically
from the local fortress or commercial center to
the district capital, the provincial capital, and
transregional metropolis. Some of these cities
had specialized functions, such as the holy cities
of Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, and karbala; the
commercial centers of Aleppo (in Syria) and Fus-
tat; and the palace cities of Baghdad, Samarra (in
Iraq), cairo, and Madinat al-Zahra (next to Cor-
doba). A number of cities became famous as cen-
ters of learning and scholarship, such as Baghdad,
Nishapur, Cairo, and Cordoba. Najaf in Iraq and
Qumm in Iran became major centers of learning
for the Shia. All cities were dependent on nearby
agricultural lands and water systems, and they
benefited from symbiotic relations with bedoUin
and other nomadic peoples who provided pasto-
ral animal products, caravan transport, and often
warriors for the army. Urban populations varied
in size from a few thousand for the smaller settle-
ments to nearly a million in medieval Baghdad,
Cairo, and Cordoba at their height, far exceeding
the populations of European cities at the time.
Famines, plagues, droughts, wars, and invasions
severely affected city life, causing population
levels to fluctuate; smaller towns and cities were
often abandoned in such situations. ibn khaldUn
(d. 1406), the famous medieval philosopher of
history, pointed out that city dwellers became
unhealthy because of their luxurious diets and
lack of exercise compared to nomadic peoples,
who were more abstemious and physically fit.
Typical features in the medieval Islamicate
urban landscape were the Friday mosqUe, per-
manent marketplace, palace complex or fortress,
public bath, and residential quarters. Other impor-
tant architectural features were shrines containing
relics of holy men and women, public fountains,
caravanserais, religious colleges, and Sufi hos-
pices. Most cities also had non-Muslim religious
structures such as churches and synagogues.
Streets were typically narrow and winding. Cem-
eteries were usually located on the outer edges
of the inhabited areas. Unlike the Greco-Roman
Hellenistic cities that preceded them, Islamicate
cities did not have theaters, coliseums, or gridlike
street patterns.
Cities in Muslim lands have undergone major
transformations in the modern era. Colonization
resulted in the creation of European-style quarters
and suburbs that contrasted greatly with the old
medieval cities. New street patterns, architectural
styles, and building materials were introduced by
colonial architects and native ones who emulated
the West. Electric lighting, motorized transport,
and modern communications enhanced the qual-
ity of life for many urban dwellers during the
20th century. Several of these cities, such as Cairo,
istanbUl, and New Delhi have become cosmo-
politan centers of global reach and importance,
where modern skyscrapers stand next to medieval
heritage sites and buildings displaying modern
revivals of traditional architectural styles. On the
other hand, new educational and employment
opportunities, improved health services, land
reform, and mechanization have resulted in major
population shifts from the countryside to the city.
As a consequence, urban populations increased
dramatically during the latter part of the 20th cen-
tury, placing great strains on the urban infrastruc-
ture and city services. Millions of people living in
densely populated urban shanty towns attached to
the older quarters or juxtaposed to upper-income
and business districts find themselves faced with
low incomes or no jobs, substandard housing and
infrastructure, and poor schooling and health
care. These slums can be found in such major
cities as Rabat (Morocco), Cairo, Beirut, Baghdad,
Tehran, Karachi, and Dhaka and contribute to
the population of disaffected youths who become
recruits for Islamic organizations and extremist
movements.
The metropolitan areas with the largest popu-
lations in Muslim countries today are greater
Cairo (est. 16.8 million, 2008), Jakarta (Indone-
sia) (13.1 million, 2005), Dhaka (Bangladesh)cities 151 J