century, such that by the 15th century the Coptic
language had all but disappeared except for litur-
gical purposes.
In the medieval period, despite the Copts’ pro-
tected status and service in the government, they
suffered from periodic popular discrimination
and waves of persecution during times of famine
or hardship. This continued into the modern era.
Egypt now has a constitution promising equal
rights to all citizens regardless of their religion,
but many Copts feel they are victims of discrimi-
nation as a religious minority in a predominantly
Muslim country.
The last hundred years have witnessed a
revival among the Copts. This is most clearly evi-
denced by the greater focus on “Sunday school”
instruction and renewed interest in the monastic
way of life. At the same time, however, the num-
ber of Copts within Egypt continues to dwindle,
primarily as a result of emigration to the West.
See also christianity and islam.
Heather N. Keaney
Further reading: Barbara L. Carter, The Copts in Egyp-
tian Politics (London: Croom Helm, 1986); Jill Kamil,
Coptic Egypt: History and Guide (Cairo: American Uni-
versity in Cairo Press, 1987); Otto F. A. Meinardus, Two
Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity (Cairo: American
University in Cairo Press, 1999); John Watson, Among
the Copts (Brighton, U.K.: Sussex Academic Press,
2000).Cordoba (Córdoba, Cordova)
Cordoba is a large city that was once the leading
center of Muslim political power and culture in
andalUsia in medieval Spain. It is located on the
banks of the Guadalquivir River, which flows
between the Sierra Morena range to the north
and the Sierra Nevada range to the south before
it enters the Atlantic Ocean. Its location has made
it an important center of commerce since ancient
times. The Romans seized and colonized it in
the second century b.c.e. and ruled it until they
were replaced by Germanic invaders from central
Europe, who controlled it for most of the time
between the fifth and eighth centuries c.e. It sur-
rendered to Muslim armies from North Africa in
711 and achieved the height of its greatness dur-
ing the reign of the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Rah-
man III (r. 912–961). It is estimated to have had
about 300,000 inhabitants at that time, making it
the largest city in medieval eUrope. Medieval Arab
historians remembered Cordoba as “the bride of
al-Andalus,” and even Hroswitha (d. ca. 1002), a
Christian nun in Germany, called it “the ornament
of the world.” After the 10th century, its fortunes
declined because of political strife, and it finally
fell to the armies of the Christian Reconquista in- Today its population still stands at about
300,000, and it serves as the capital of the Spanish
province of the same name.
Islamicate Cordoba’s most famous architec-
tural landmarks were its grand mosqUe and pal-
ace cities. The mosque is thought to have been
founded on the site of an ancient church by prince
Abd al-Rahman I (r. 756–788), the last surviving
member of the Umayyad dynasty of syria that had
been massacred by the Abbasids in 750. By the
10th century, it had become the largest mosque
The Virgin Mary Coptic Church in Zamalek, Cairo, also
called the Maraashly Church ( Juan E. Campo)
Cordoba 167 J