material possessions, which may necessitate beg-
ging for subsistence, a more spiritual sense of
poverty suggests the control of desires, so that
the dervish can focus on God. Many Sufi guides,
in fact, warn dervishes against extreme poverty,
since poverty itself must be forgotten, as it is only
a stage on the path and can distract one from
focusing on God.
In early Islamic history, piety was often expressed
through individual asceticism. Inevitably, some
ascetics gained fame, followers were attracted to
their example, and in this way schools developed.
By the 12th century, Sufi orders such as the Qadiris
had begun to take definite shape around the person
or the tomb of a famous master, with formal rules
and special buildings designed to accommodate
and feed resident dervishes and provide space for
rituals. Each order developed its own forms of
worship, including chanting the names of God or
special formulas (dhikr); the singing of mystical
poetry to music, often accompanied by dancing;
and sometimes ecstatic practices, which might
include, as with the riF ai sUFi order, dervishes eat-
ing hot coals or piercing their bodies with spikes.
Dervish thus came to refer to a member of such an
order, and in some orders, such as the Mevlevis
and Bektashis, it refers to a particular rank in the
hierarchy of the order. Whirling dervishes is a name
used by Westerners for members of the mevlevi
sUFi order, who perform circular dances as part of
their musical ceremonies. Some orders, such as the
Qalandaris, were more loosely organized, and their
disciples traveled constantly from place to place,
being known as wandering dervishes.
See also bektashi sUFi order; saint.
Mark Soileau
Further reading: Ahmet T. Karamustafa, God’s Unruly
Friends: Dervish Groups in the Islamic Later Middle
Period 1200–1550 (Salt Lake City: Utah University
Press, 1994); Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimen-
sions of Islam (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
Press, 1975); Spencer Trimingham, The Sufi Orders in
Islam (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971).
Devil See satan.
dhikr (zikr, zikir)
Dhikr is Arabic for recollection, or remembrance.
The qUran calls upon humans to recollect God
and not to forget him: “O you who believe!
Remember God often” (Q 33:41); “O people!
Remember the blessing God has given you” (Q
35:2); and “Remember your lord when you forget.
Remembrance causes people to discover the real
reason they were created to begin with—to serve
God. Indeed, people will be held accountable on
the Judgment Day if they forget God (Q 18:24).”
The Quran also calls upon believers to remember
God’s prophets, the bearers of previous revela-
tions. The Quran itself is called a “remembrance”
(dhikra), and its verses are signs (ayat) revealed
so that people recall God and his sovereignty over
heaven and earth. Muslims believe that the obli-
gation of remembrance rests upon a primordial
covenant that God established with Adam’s prog-
eny (all humans), wherein they recognized him as
their lord (Q 7:172).
Occasions for remembering God arise through-
out a Muslim’s life—a birth and death, before eat-
ing a meal, beginning a journey, on feast days, and
in the performance of the Five pillars of Islamic
worship. During the month of Muharram and at
other times of the year, the Shiis remember their
holy imams, who were martyred for their belief
in God. The idea of remembrance has assumed an
especially important place in sUFism, in which dhikr
refers both to a word or phrase pronounced repeat-
edly during their ritual practices and to the ritual
practices themselves. Among the sacred words and
phrases used most commonly by Sufis in this regard
are allah, or one of God’s other divine names; la
ilaha illa Allah “there is not god but God”; Allahu
akbar “God is greater”; al-hamdu lillah “Praise
God”; and simply hu “He.” For some Sufi orders, a
single litany may be repeated 70,000 times.
The introduction of dhikr performances into
the life of the Sufi orders began around the 11thdhikr 193 J