state called pakistan, Gandhi believed in an inde-
pendent India that would be religiously diverse
but unified in essence under a pluralistic style
of Hinduism. Gandhi was deeply opposed to the
idea of the partition of India into Muslim and
Hindu states and was devastated by the violent
partition of British India into Pakistan and India
that took place upon India’s independence. Gan-
dhi was assassinated on January, 30, 1948, by a
Hindu extremist. His tragic death brought to the
nation’s attention the anger of Hindu extremists
at Gandhi’s concern for Indian Muslims. Since his
death, Gandhi has become a worldwide icon for
the power of passive resistance to political oppres-
sion, influencing such major leaders as Martin
Luther King, Jr.
See also all-india mUslim leagUe; colonial-
ism; hindUism and islam; khilaFat movement.
Megan Adamson SijapatiFurther reading: Judith Brown, Gandhi and Civil Disobe-
dience, 1928–1934 (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1977); Mohandas K. Gandhi, An Autobiography:
The Story of My Experiments with Truth (Boston: Beacon
Press, 1957); Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Met-
calf, A Concise History of India (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2002); Rudrangshu Mukherjee, ed.,
The Penguin Gandhi Reader (New York: Penguin Books,
1993).
garden (Arabic: bustan or janna; Persian:
bagh)
Gardens have played a central role in Islamdom as
locations of revenue production, display, scientific
exploration, entertainment, and relaxation. Medi-
eval poetry from throughout Islamdom, inscrip-
tions on garden pavilions and palaces, medieval
botanical manuals, and travel literature all attest
to the central role of the garden in public and
private architectUre.
calligraphy adorning religious architecture
within or adjacent to gardens indicates that
patrons consider these spaces as earthly repre-
sentations of the heavenly paradise. Both the
qUran and hadith literature contain numerous
descriptions of paradise as a tree-filled, pleasantly
perfumed, and peaceful place in which the righ-
teous and pure followers of Islam will dwell after
JUdgment day. One of the most often-repeated
Quranic phrases about paradise mentions gardens
of eternity beneath which four rivers flow (Q
4:57; 5:85; 9:72; 18:31). The inhabitants of para-
dise (also referred to as Eden and al-Firdaus) will
live in complete comfort with their loved ones in
palaces built of silver and gold. These descriptions
of paradise in the Quran and hadith are often
paired with descriptions of hell (the Fire).Paradisal garden in Chefchaouen, Morocco (Federico R.
Campo)K 256 garden