cutting criticisms against shiism and other Islamic
sects and theological schools. Scholars credit Ibn
Hazm with being informed about the doctrines
he attacked, but they also recognize that he was
adamant about the ultimate truth of his own
beliefs, particularly the absolute unity of God and
the authenticity of the Quran as the word of God.
Another of his famous works is Tawq al-hamama
(Neck-ring of the dove), a fascinating essay on
Andalusian Arab understandings of love, enriched
by colorful anecdotes drawn from his personal
experiences and those of his acquaintances. It
began with discussions of how couples fall in
love and communicate with each other and then
their unions, separations, and betrayals. The reli-
gious message Ibn Hazm sought to convey to his
readers in this work was that people must try to
overcome the carnal appetites of their bodies and
follow God-given reason and religious law to win
salvation.
See also adab; arabic langUage and litera-
tUre; theology.
Further reading: Ghulam Haider Aasi, Muslim Under-
standing of Other Religions: A Study of Ibn Hazm’s Kitab
al-fasl fi al-milal wa al-ahwa wa al-nihal (Islamabad:
International Institute of Islamic Thought and Islamic
Research, 1999); Lois A. Giffen, “Ibn Hazm and the
Tawq al-hamama.” In The Legacy of Muslim Spain, edited
by Salma Khadra Jayyusi, 420–442 (Leiden: E.J. Brill,
1994); Maria Rosa Menocal, The Ornament of the World:
How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of
Tolerance in Medieval Spain (Boston: Little Brown &
Co., 2002).
Ibn Idris, Ahmad (ca. 1750–1837) 19th-
century reformist Sufi leader
Ahmad ibn Idris was an influential Sufi teacher
in the 19th century. Born in morocco, Ibn Idris
received a religious edUcation at the Qarawiyyin
mosqUe in Fez and established himself as an
important Sufi teacher there. In 1798, he left
Morocco and spent the remainder of his life in the
Hijaz (western Arabia), Upper egypt, and yemen,
where he died at the advanced age of 87.
Ibn Idris focused his work on preaching and
teaching. He was an excellent organizer and
trainer of disciples, but he did not leave a coher-
ent corpus of writings. Apart from prayers, lita-
nies, and personal letters, most of what remains
are summaries of his teachings assembled by
his disciples. Profoundly mystical yet humble,
Ibn Idris influenced the lives of many Sufis who
passed through Arabia during nearly 40 years in
the region. He is well known for his defense of the
Sufi way in a debate with two Wahhabi scholars
near the end of his life. His legacy was to point
Sufi movements toward a moderate path and away
from the controversial practices and doctrines that
earned the criticism of literalist groups such as the
Wahhabis. Although Ibn Idris did not found his
own tariqa, his disciples established influential
Sufi orders that have spread his teachings beyond
Africa to the Middle East, eastern Europe, and
Southeast Asia. The term Idrisiyya refers both to
his school of thought and to the Sufi order that
looks to him as its founder.
See also reneWal and reForm movements;
sUFism; Wahhabism.
Stephen CoryFurther reading: R. S. O’Fahey, Enigmatic Saint: Ahmed
Ibn Idris and the Idrisi Tradition (Evanston, Ill.: North-
western University Press, 1990); ———, “The writings
by, attributed to, or on Ahmad Ibn Idris.” Bibliotheca
Orientalis 43, nos. 5/6 (1986): 660–669; John O. Voll,
“Two Biographies of Ahmad Ibn Idris al-Fasi (1769–
1837).” International Journal of African Historical Studies
6 (1973): 633–645.Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad (704–767) author of
the leading biography of Muhammad
Details about the early years of Ibn Ishaq’s life are
lacking, other than that he was born in medina
to an Arab family and that his grandfather had
converted to Islam after having been taken cap-K 332 Ibn Idris, Ahmad