independence from the Soviet Union in 1991,
President Karimov declared himself victor in the
state’s first presidential election with 86 percent
of the vote. He was reelected in 2000 with 91.9
percent of the vote, and a referendum in January
2002 extended what is supposed to be Karimov’s
final term to 2007 by amending the constitution
to allow for presidential terms of seven years.
Born in Samarkand, Karimov studied engineer-
ing and economics and began his career in the
government in 1966, where he moved up through
his work with the State Planning Committee.
Nevertheless, he was considered a political out-
sider when Mikhail Gorbachev chose him for first
secretary.
Since the collapse of the USSR Karimov has
solidified his control over Uzbekistan. He has out-
lawed all significant secular and religious political
parties and sent those opposition figures not in
exile to prison. Since September 11, 2001, rela-
tions between the Karimov regime and the United
States have grown stronger. With American troops
now stationed in the country, Uzbekistan has been
used as a staging ground for operations in neigh-
boring aFghanistan. This strategic relationship
has lessened the outside pressure on Karimov to
reform his increasingly repressive and authoritar-
ian rule.
Islam Karimov, of course, is not anti-Islam, and
his regime has supported mosque construction
and shrine-restoration since independence. There
is very little tolerance, however, for mosques
or Islamic teachings outside of state control. In
recent years, all opposition has been branded as
“fundamentalist” and “extremist.” For example,
in 1997 when four policemen were killed in gang
violence in the Fergana Valley, Islamic groups
were blamed and mass arrests of Muslims took
place. While some Islamic political groups do
exist underground in Uzbekistan, their member-
ship is very minimal.
See also central asia and the caUcasUs;
commUnism.
David ReevesFurther reading: Timothy J. Colton and Robert C.
Tucker, eds., Patterns in Post-Soviet Leadership (Boulder,
Colo.: Westview Press, 1995); Resul Yalcin, The Rebirth
of Uzbekistan: Politics, Economy and Society in the Post-
Soviet Era. (Reading, England: Ithaca Press, 2002).Kashmir
A disputed land of spectacular mountains, green
valleys, and beautiful lakes, Kashmir is divided
between Indian and Pakistani rule. Indian Kash-
mir is a territory known officially as Jammu and
Kashmir. The Pakistani part of Kashmir is divided
into two regions known as Azad (Free) Jammu
and Kashmir and the Northern Territories. Indian
Kashmir consists of three provinces: Jammu, the
Kashmir Valley, and Ladakh. China is located
along its northern and eastern borders. It has an
area of nearly 86,000 square miles, which is com-
parable to that of Minnesota in the United States.
There are about 11 million people (2001 census)
living in Indian Kashmir, of whom 65 percent are
Muslims. This territory therefore has the largest
percentage of Muslims among all of India’s states
and territories, with the exception of Lakshad-
weep (95.5 percent). Most Muslims reside in
the Kashmir Valley proper, where they comprise
about 95 percent of the population. They make up
44 percent of the population in Ladakh (Tibetan
Buddhists are a 51 percent majority there) and
27 percent of the population in Jammu (Hindus
comprise a 67 percent majority there). Sikhs are
an important minority, especially in Jammu. In
Azad Kashmir there are four million people; about
750,000 people live in the mountainous Northern
Territories.
sUFism has been an important aspect of Kash-
miri religious life since the 14th century, and the
majority of Kashmir’s Muslims identify with Sunni
Islam. Ismaili Shiis predominate in the Northern
Territories, where they migrated centuries ago
to escape persecution. There are also followers
of tWelve-imam shiism and the ahmadiyya sect.
Moreover, Kashmiri Islam developed infusionsKashmir 425 J