individuals, but their decisions could often have
a bearing on public life. By the 14th century, they
were included in government ruling councils,
together with the sUlta n and provincial gover-
nors. During the era of the ottoman dynasty
(15th–20th centuries) it became a formal govern-
ment office, also known as shaykh al-Islam, and
was regarded as the highest-ranking position in
the land for religious affairs. The mufti of istan-
bUl oversaw the madrasas in the capital city and
provided advisory opinions based on the sharia
to the sultan and his court. With the appearance
of secular nation-states based on European civil
codes, the functions of muftis became more diver-
sified. In some cases, their functions were limited
to issues of family law (for example, marriage,
divorce, and inheritance). Some states, such as
egypt, tUnisia, Oman, and pakistan, have desig-
nated an official known as the Grand Mufti, who
is responsible for overseeing the religious affairs
of the country. Some countries with Muslim
minority populations also have such officials, but
they are regarded as leading representatives of the
Muslim community to state authorities, rather
than as sources of advisory rulings based on the
sharia. These countries include Russia, France,
and israel/palestine.
See also fiqh, ijtihad; shaykh; Ulama.
Further reading: Muhammad Khalid Masud, Brinkley
Messick, and David S. Powers, Islamic Legal Interpreta-
tion: Muftis and Their Fatwas (Cambridge, Mass.: Har-
vard University Press, 1996); Brinkley Messick, “The
Mufti, the Text, and the World: Legal Interpretation in
Yemen,” Man 21, no. 1 (March 1986): 102–119; R. C.
Repp, The Mufti of Istanbul: A Study in the Development
of Ottoman Learned Hierarchy (London and Atlantic
Highlands, N.J.: Ithaca Press, 1986).
Mughal dynasty (1526–1858)
The Mughals were a Sunni dynasty that ruled
much of india between the 16th and 19th cen-
turies. The name Mughal is a variant of Mongol,
as the empire’s founder, Babur (r. 1483–1530),
claimed descent from the Mongol ruler Genghis
Khan, as well as tamerlane. Babur became the
ruler of a small territory in Central Asia at a
young age. He soon set about enlarging his ter-
ritory, leading raids and expeditions throughout
the region. In 1504 he captured Kabul and estab-
lished a kingdom in present-day aFghanistan.
In 1505 Babur made his first forays into India.
Over the years, these forays grew from raids
into serious attempts at conquest, and in 1526
Babur defeated the ruler of the delhi sUltanate
at Panipat, near delhi. Establishing his imperial
seat at Agra, Babur continued his conquest of
northern India.
Babur was succeeded by his eldest son, Huma-
yun (r. 1530–40, 1555–56), but Babur’s other
sons tried to seize the throne. Sher Khan Suri,
a leader of the Pashtun tribe in present-day
Afghanistan, took advantage of the brothers’
rivalry, defeating the Mughal army and declar-
ing himself ruler. Humayun was forced to seek
refuge in Persia (present-day iran). After Sher
Khan’s death in 1545, Babur’s sons again sought
control of the empire; aided by Bayram Khan, one
of Babur’s soldiers, Humayun finally succeeded
in winning back the territory his father had left
him, and established his capital at Delhi. He was
succeeded by his son akbar (r. 1556–1605), one
of the empire’s greatest rulers. With the help of
Bayram Khan, Akbar extended the empire until
it included most of the subcontinent north of the
Godavari River in South India.
To govern this vast area, Akbar developed an
efficient bureaucracy. He also worked to integrate
the Muslim and Hindu population of his empire
(see hindUism and islam), introducing policies
based on religious toleration. He abolished the
jizya, the tax imposed on non-Muslim adult males,
and he included Hindus as well as Muslims in his
administration. Although Akbar’s policies were
designed to unify the empire, his support of dif-
ferent theological ideas made some of his Muslim
subjects uneasy, and his declaration that he wasK 488 Mughal dynasty