the final interpreter of Islamic law alarmed the
Ulama, or religious leaders. Akbar also supported
architecture and the arts, integrating Muslim and
Hindu traditions to create a distinctive Mughal
style.
Akbar’s heir, Jahangir (r. 1605–28), lacked
his father’s administrative and military abilities.
During Akbar’s reign, European powers became
an increasing presence in India, with Portuguese,
English, and Dutch merchants establishing trad-
ing posts such as Bombay, Goa, and Calcutta.
Jahangir’s son, Shah Jahan (r. 1628–58), initially
launched a fresh wave of conquest, capturing
parts of the Deccan and halting the Portuguese
in Bengal. He then turned much of his energy to
building projects, including the Taj Mahal, built
as a tomb for his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal,
who died in 1631 while giving birth to her 14th
child. Under Shah Jahan, Delhi became one of the
great cities of the Muslim world. However, his
lavish expenditures drained the imperial treasury,
while trade fell increasingly into the hands of
European powers. In 1658 his son aUrangzeb (r.
1658–1707) seized the throne, imprisoning his
father and having his brothers killed.
Aurangzeb ruled with a reformer’s zeal. An
intensely devout Sunni Muslim, he declared
sharia, or Islamic law, the law of the land, and
strictly enforced regulations against drinking,
gambling, and prostitution. He reinstated the
jizya, or tax on non-Muslims, while abolishing all
taxes not authorized by Islamic law. The reintro-
duction of the jizya meant that the tax burden fell
most heavily on the empire’s Hindu population,
while the abolition of other taxes reduced the
empire’s revenues overall. Although he succeeded
in capturing the sultanates of Bijapur and Gol-
conda, he was unable to subdue the Marathas, aTaj Mahal (17th century), built by Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, Mumtaz Mahal, Agra, India (Juan E. Campo)
Mughal dynasty 489 J