transmission, which included all of the former
murshids of that particular order back to the initial
founder, and sometimes as far back as the prophet
Mohammad. Typically, the Sufi order would be
named after the initial founder of the spiritual
lineage. A murshid would be expected to maintain
the particular mystical teachings that were passed
on to him by his predecessors and to instill them
in turn in his disciples.
The relationship between the murshid and his
disciples was the key to their spiritual progress.
First, they had to swear allegiance to the murshid
in an initiation ceremony (bayaa) in which often
they would receive a hair cut. The murshid would
then present them with a hat or cloak, symboliz-
ing their new status. After joining the Sufi order,
complete submission and obedience to the mur-
shid was expected. In fact, many manuals on the
correct behavior of disciples exist, with advice on
subjects such as the proper way to sit in the pres-
ence of one’s Sufi master.
See also adab; tariqa.
Sophia Pandya
Further reading: Carl W. Ernst, Shambhala Guide to
Sufism (Boston: Shambhala, 1997); J. Spencer Trim-
ingham, The Sufi Orders in Islam (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1971).
Musa See moses.
music
With the rise of islam in the seventh century and
its rapid spread throughout West Asia and North
Africa, the sounds associated with this swiftly
growing religion traveled far and traversed many
cultures. Following the ascent of the abbasid
caliphate in 750 the ensuing golden age of the
Islamic Empire was known for its intellectual
pursuits, intercultural exchange, and develop-
ments in science, philosophy, and the arts. With
all of these interrelated cultural forces at work,
the production of music and musical knowledge
was extraordinary. An invaluable contribution
of this period is by Abu l-Faraj al-Isfahani (d.
967), a musician of Persian origin who studied
in baghdad and produced the monumental Kitab
al-aghani al-kabir (The great book of songs),
which comprises 24 volumes and nearly 10,000
pages in modern print editions. During this time,
performers and scholars of diverse backgrounds
greatly influenced the development of music
in the region and often were patronized by or
belonged to the court. State support of music
continued with the rise of the ottoman dynasty
in the 14th century, which again, was multieth-
nic in nature, and included important musical
contributions from Turks, Arabs, Greeks, and
Armenians of Muslim, Christian, and Jewish
religious beliefs.
While music has flourished within Muslim-
governed societies, it also has been opposed
and censored on religious grounds in different
ways. At issue is the extent to which, if at all,
Islam allows or embraces music. The qUran does
not directly reference the censorship of music,
while the hadith can be understood to support
suppression or allowance. This debate has been
fueled by the affective power and popular appeal
of listening (samaa) to music in addition to the
relationship of music to poetry and dance, which
have their own attractions. sUFism frequently
has been at the center of this tension as it can
involve the use of music in especially mystical
ways. Examples of Sufi music include the song
of praise (madh), song honoring mUhammad
(madih al-nabi), and remembrance ceremony
(dhikr) involving Quranic recitation, music, and
dance. Of particular interest are the call to prayer
(adhan) and Quranic recitation (qiraa), which are
practiced throughout the Islamic world. While
they are not considered music, they can soundK 504 Musa