between the 14th and 20th centuries. It takes its
name from Osman (also spelled Uthman, r. 1281–
1326), a warrior who led a Turkish principality
in the period following the demise of the Ana-
tolian Seljuk Sultanate (1077–1307). Ottoman
control was consolidated in western Anatolia and
extended to the Balkans under Osman’s successors
Orhan I (r. 1326–62) and Murad I (r. 1362–89),
and was extended eastward under Bayezid I (r.
1389–1402). It was under Mehmed II (r. 1444–46,
1451–81) that the Ottomans conquered Constan-
tinople, the last bastion of the Byzantine Empire,
in 1453. With Constantinople (istanbUl) as its
capital, the Ottoman Empire continued to con-
solidate politically, administratively, and legally.
The empire reached its apogee in the 16th
century. Sultan Selim I (r. 1512–20) conquered
egypt and assumed control over the holy cities
of medina and mecca and as far south as yemen.
His successor, Suleyman I (known as “the Mag-
nificent,” r. 1512–66), conquered Hungary, and
even besieged Vienna in 1529. Their successes
were due in part to a strong infantry, known as
the Janissaries. But these successes were followed
by military defeats in confrontations with the
empire’s main rivals—the Austrians in Europe
and the Safavids of iran—in the late 16th century.
The Ottoman Empire had been built on military
conquests, and when expansion was checked,
the empire began to decline. The 18th century
was marked by confrontations with the empire’s
new rival, Russia, and a complex web of political
relationships developed between the empire and
European powers.
Confronted with the military superiority of the
West, the Ottomans began to institute moderniz-
ing reforms in the 19th century. The empire’s first
constitution was enacted in 1876, but it was soon
repealed by Abd al-Hamid II (r. 1876–1909), who
preferred autocratic rule. The constitution was
reenacted in 1908 in response to the Young Turk
Revolution, and Abd al-Hamid II was deposed in
- The empire had come to be dominated by
the European powers, and the decision to side
with the Germans in World War I brought about
disastrous peace terms at the end of hostilies.
With the British occupying Istanbul, mUs taFa
kemal atatUrk led a nationalist resistance, which
eventually won independence and overthrew the
Ottoman regime. The last of the Ottoman sultans,
Mehmed VI (d. 1926), was deposed in 1922. His
successor, Abd al-Majid II, continued to hold the
title of caliph until this position was abolished
in 1924. From the ashes of the Ottoman Empire
modern Turkey emerged under the leadership of
Ataturk (r. 1923–38). The Ottoman household
has continued to survive to the present day, but it
lacks any political authority. The current head of
the House of Osman, Ertugrul Osman (b. 1912),
lives in New York City.
Sunni Islam was the official religion of the
Ottoman Empire, with the hanaFi legal school
as the basis of state law. The Ottomans also
allowed Shafii law to prevail in areas where it had
significant followings, such as Egypt, Syria, the
Hijaz (western Arabia), and among the Kurds.
Through conquests and population resettlements,
Sunni Islam was brought to the Balkans. The
Ottomans were generally opposed to shiism, but
they allowed some degree of latitude to the Alawis
of Anatolia and Syria (where they are also knownSultan Ahmed Mosque (early 17th century), Istanbul,
Turkey (Juan E. Campo)Ottoman dynasty 539 J